Introduction

Countries need individuals with the access to computers and the skills that allow them to take advantage of ICTs to overcome aspects such as poverty reduction, decent employment and access to better education, among others. However, not everyone has access to a computer or the necessary skills levels to achieve that purpose. To understand this problem, the digital divide theory is used to analyze the discrepancy between individuals, households, businesses, and regions of varying socioeconomic levels in their access and use of ICTs for a wide range of purposes. Many scholars and organizations have analyzed the DD, including Castells (2001), DiMaggio, et al. (2001), Norris (2001) and others. This theory considers various factors such as age, gender, rural-urban divide, and education level (Hargittai, 2014; Ragnedda and Muschert, 2013).

DD research has advanced through three stages. The first stage is concerned with technology access, specifically the availability of a device with Internet connectivity and basic digital literacy (Büchi et al., 2016; Hargittai, 2014; Scheerder et al., 2017).

The second stage refers to how people use ICT; aspects of Internet, such as information search (Hargittai, 2014), entertainment (Van Deursen and Van Dijk, 2014), social interactions, gaming, economic activities, among others (Chen, 2015) are considered. Factors such as age (Friemel, 2016; Hargittai and Hinnant, 2008), education level (Nishijima, et al., 2017), social context (Van Deursen and Van Dijk, 2014), geographical location (Breene, 2016; ;; Pick & Sarkar , 2015; Stern, Adams, & Elsasser, 2009), cultural or demographic background (Moritz Büchi et al., 2016), and wellbeing (Nie, Sousa-Poza, & Nimrod, 2017) have been explored in relation to Internet use. The third stage refers to the productive uses or results expected from the use of ICTs, a factor that is more complex to measure than the previous ones. Examples of this type of use include getting a university degree from a virtual program and increasing social relations. (Van Deursen and Helsper, 2015)

Digital skills and digital frameworks

In this research, we adopt the definition Digital skills proposed by the European Commission (2018): “cognitive skills that require the use of digital tools in purposeful activities and can be observed and assessed in the workplace when contextualized in particular job roles or practical tasks.” With a focus on the social and economic wellbeing of individuals.

Digital skills are a crucial component in the success of Digital Ecosystems due to their focus on talent (Bagaeva and Voronova, 2019; OECD, 2016a, 2019). Experts have examined digital skills through various interdisciplinary approaches since the advent and progression of the Internet, where technical concerns are just as important as individuals’ awareness of the benefits of ICTs in their daily lives (Chetty, et al., 2018; Helsper, et al., 2015). In Latin America, the lack of skilled individuals is one of the primary barriers to growing digital entrepreneurship because of difficulties in importing specialized knowledge, underdeveloped financial sectors, and a limited presence of digital entrepreneurs (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development , 2019).

Despite efforts to improve digital skills in Latin American countries, there is still unequal progress. For instance, Colombia was ranked 56th out of 63 countries in talent and 47th in digital skills according to the 2019 World Digital Competitiveness Ranking (Brits and Cabolis, 2019). The 2017 national ICT survey in Colombia also revealed that only 40% of the respondents believed they had the necessary skills to use the Internet, 13% said that they had the skills for programming, 12% stated that they could perform basic numeracy calculations in Excel, and 14% affirmed that they could connect and install a device (DANE, 2017).

The digital skills frameworks are systematic ways of defining the abilities needed in a digital ecosystem or territory, often proposed by scholars or governments that include a classification and method for organizing them (ITU, 2019; Pawlowski, et al., 2018; European Union, 2017, p. 7). These frameworks make an easier development of shared agendas among government, business, universities and citizens, aimed at determining the digital skills required to fill job vacancies, create new job opportunities, address youth inactivity, and provide educational offerings to facilitate citizens’ development.

Some governments propose digital skill frameworks in their countries, whose purpose is to increase collaboration networks among stakeholders, to share common purposes in regions, to promote the attraction of talent, and to bring a closer relationship between employment supply and demand. One of the most important impacts of Digital Skills Frameworks is to promote social and economic rights for citizens (Martínez-Cantos, 2017; Wilkin, et al., 2017).

European countries have established digital skills frameworks for individuals, but this is not the case in Latin American countries where only a few examples exist, such as Mexico (Ministry of Communications and Transportation (MCT), 2019), Chile (Alarcón, et al., 2013) and Colombia.

Some authors suggest ways to measure the set of skills necessary for individuals to participate in society: achievement of ICT literacy (Ferro et al., 2011), to understand more advanced skills (Van Deursen and Van Dijk, 2011), to depict Internet usage (Van Deursen, et al., 2011; Van Deursen, et al., 2016), and to analyze more complex skills (Mendonça, et al., 2015; Ragnedda, et al., 2019; Van Laar, et al., 2018).

The aim of this study is to analyze digital skills frameworks and structures, to identify the most relevant skills considered and to determine the skills included as advanced skills, as well as to create a digital economy skills framework that focuses on improving the quality of life for individuals and communities in developing countries, while also reducing social and economic vulnerabilities.

Method

Digital skills scales and frameworks, developed by scholars and cities or regions, are analyzed and linked to digital economy. For the development of this research, the steps shown in the figure were developed.

A literature review of digital skills frameworks and policy documents formulated by countries or regions around the world was developed. Subsequently, the skills proposed in each document were disaggregated and compared to determine commonalities.

Based on the skills analyzed, a skills framework is proposed, with a specific focus on product uses (or digital economy). The proposed framework includes the structure, the definition of competencies and skills, and the scale of measurement of the framework at the individual level.

The proposed framework was then subjected to content validation through expert judgment with statistical support, in which the relevance, clarity and coherence of the proposed framework were evaluated.

Review of digital skills frameworks

Digital skills frameworks are structured according to the specific needs of the regions for which they are developed. One approach focuses on addressing inequalities caused by the lack of access to ICT resources and skills and aiming to overcome digital illiteracy in certain populations. Another approach emphasizes how ICTs can facilitate digital citizenship by increasing participation and knowledge of city services, such as education, health, and public transport. Other frameworks prioritize 21st century digital skills that allow citizens to leverage ICTs through skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, collaboration, and safety (Economou, 2016; Ferrari, 2012; Iordache, et al., 2017; Law, et al., 2018; Wedlake et al., 2019).

One of the most referenced skills frameworks is Digcomp 2.1, (Figure 2) whose structure is based on five competency areas in information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, content creation, safety and problem solving (Carretero et al., 2017; Ferrari, 2012). Each area of competence involves eight proficiency levels and is the reference of organizations such as the ITU (2018b, 2019), the United Nations Economic and Social Council (2018), the OECD (2015, 2019) and the European Commission (2019, 2018).

Analysis of skills

The first stage of this research was the development of digital skills frameworks worldwide to identify the specific skills used. A total of ten documents were found including city policy reports and scientific papers that were analyzed considering the criteria shown in Table 1.

In the digital economy context, the ability to create digital content is a crucial skill area. The most important skills in this area are programming, integration, and the ability to modify digital content, as shown in Table 2. The Canadian framework from 2019 provides a comprehensive level of detail on the skills and abilities needed to achieve specific outcomes, while the Mexican skills framework combines levels of technology adoption with technological trends as described in the MCT 2019 report.

Framework proposed

There is no standard approach for designing skills or competency frameworks, as they vary in their structures and criteria. Most frameworks consist of a general classification and a method for organizing and defining skills (Pawlowski, et al., 2018). The framework presented here is divided into two layers: one layer consists of competency areas, and the other layer consists of individual skills. Each skill is defined with specific scope and levels of proficiency, as shown in Figure 3. This framework is unique in that it integrates digital skills with entrepreneurial intention as a means to achieve concrete outcomes in the use of ICTs (Helsper, et al., 2015).

The proposed framework includes three competency areas with their respective skills (Table 3) and the set of validation questions for each of the skills (Table 4).

Validation

To ensure that the proposed framework can effectively assess skills required in a digital economy context, it must be comprehensive, appropriate, easy to understand, and logically consistent (Escobar-Pérez and Cuervo-Martínez, 2008). Content validity can be established by seeking expert opinions, as recommended by studies conducted by Escobar-Pérez and Cuervo-Martínez (2008).

The proposed framework possesses certain features that make Aiken’s V coefficient a suitable method for its evaluation. This coefficient is commonly used to assess the validity of instruments in social sciences and psychometric tests. One of its advantages is the statistical validity of the test, and it is capable of identifying negative asymmetric distributions as reported by experts. Aiken’s V coefficient has a range between 0 and 1, where a value of 1 represents a perfect agreement among judges (Merino-Soto, 2018).

To evaluate the clarity, coherence, and relevance of the proposed framework, a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 4 was used in a 26-item questionnaire that was distributed to five experts chosen from the fields of ICT and entrepreneurship. The questionnaire was sent to the experts in an Excel file, along with a description of the purpose of the instrument. Each of the experts provided recommendations for the evaluated items.

The Aiken’s V coefficient is used to evaluate the content validity of the framework and the criterion for acceptance is based on Escurra (1988), where V>=0.8 determines the item validity. The average V coefficients obtained for clarity, coherence, and relevance of skills were 0.88, 0.82, and 0.86, respectively (Table 4).

The questions in were initially evaluated and resulted in 55 valid questions and 23 invalid questions. The feedback from experts on each question was reviewed and some of them were adjusted or eliminated. Specifically, 8 questions were adjusted, 12 were reviewed for relevance, and 11 were reviewed for coherence. Four questions were removed because they did not meet the minimum evaluation criteria. The questions that were removed had the lowest average scores in all three categories. After the adjustments, the questions were evaluated again, and new coefficients were obtained, which are listed in Table 5.

Discussion

Ten digital skills frameworks and their structures were analyzed to comprehend what the regions expected of their citizens in ICT field. Some skills were better documented than others, according to Iordache, et al. (2017). Communication and collaboration were highly documented, as was digital literacy, which referred to basic device knowledge, email management, and Internet browsing.

Are we advancing in digital skills of advanced uses? The level of preparedness of individuals to face or create a digital venture implies a set of skills aspects beyond basic skills. There is not much information about the skills analyzed and classified required in the economic field. The work of research by Grundke, et al. (2018) analyzes the possibility of producing income through the interaction with customers derived from the sale of products and services online using The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). Klimczuk, et al. (2015) whose work on digital skills includes skills related to financial management and making a profit using ICT.

The possibility of analyzing digital skills from the perspective of capabilities under the paradigm proposed by Amartya Sen is in future work, where capabilities determine greater opportunities for individuals. (Klimczuk, et al., 2015) An example of this is the possibility of getting digital jobs based on the skills gained (Berger and Frey, 2016; Civilcharran and Maharaj, 2019; OECD, 2016c; Organista-Sandoval et al., 2017).

Interdisciplinarity. One of the relevant findings of this work is that advanced digital skills require interdisciplinary research: technical competence, analysis of management skills and social skills are also required (Civilcharran and Maharaj, 2019). It is also important to study the socioeconomic conditions in the use of ICT to undertake digitally (Hanna, 2020) and the acceptance of technology as a facilitator for obtaining employment (Leahy and Wilson, 2014)

The need for alignment. This study serves as the basis for promoting alignment between actors in digital ecosystems: colleges, universities and other educational institutions must assess curricula relevance , the duration of study plans and training costs (ITU, 2018). Similarly, the analysis in the acquisition of skills through informal structures, for instance, social networks, self-learning and peer to peer learning (Leahy and Wilson, 2014)

Conclusions

Digital skills are a powerful tool to increase options of inclusion of individuals, determine the possibilities of being part of a workforce or to create a venture (Eynon and Geniets, 2016; Ratcheva, et al., 2019).

ICTs are determinant in the provision of capacities to individuals to achieve economic, social and cultural results. To achieve these results, individuals require skills that allow them to take advantage of the opportunities of a knowledge-based economy and the expansion of new markets.

There is a significant difference among frameworks between developed and developing countries. Some European countries have developed frameworks that align with Digcomp 2.1, while Latin American countries like Mexico, Chile, and Colombia lack details of skills and proficiency levels. A new framework called DQ, proposed by Park (2019), considers skills related to Data and Artificial Intelligence literacy. This approach is an interesting way to introduce new knowledge to students in schools.

A new framework is proposed, specifically for the context of a developing country and with a focus on the tangible outcomes that individuals can achieve with advanced skills. The proposed framework emphasizes the importance of identifying business opportunities through an entrepreneurial mindset, and by possessing managerial skills. To assess an individual’s preparedness for starting a digital venture, a series of questions were developed.

Novelty of this framework is its focus on individuals who have already acquired basic and intermediate ICT knowledge, and how a digital venture perspective can contribute to achieving tangible outcomes with ICT use.

A content validity was applied to the framework through expert judgment to determine its clarity, relevance, and consistency. Following the validation process, the framework was narrowed down to 20 questions, 7 skills, and three competency areas. Adjustments were made to the items and an average V Aiken’s coefficient of 0.96 for clarity, 0.93 for relevance, and 0.93 for coherence was obtained. in conclusion, the proposed skills model is reliable and can identify the essential skills for a digital entrepreneur.

Future research is recommended in specific fields such as design, creative industries, programming and software development, among others. Besides, the validation of digital skills in developing countries in specific conditions of age, social context and the role of universities in the process can also be explored more deeply.

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Información adicional

Cómo citar: Arbeláez Rendón, M., Lotero Vélez, L., Loaiza, Y.E. (2023). A skills framework in the context of a digital ecosystem: an engine for social inclusion in developing countries. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Educativos, 18(2), 175-196. https://doi.org/10.17151/rlee.2023.18.2.8