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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="index">180</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title specific-use="original" xml:lang="es">Interdisciplinaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher" xml:lang="es">Interdisciplinaria</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">0325-8203</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">1668-7027</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones Psicológicas y Ciencias Afines</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>
<country>Argentina</country>
<email>interdisciplinaria-ciipme@conicet.gov.ar</email>
</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="art-access-id" specific-use="redalyc">18081840001</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.16888/interd.2024.41.2.1</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Revisiones</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es">
<bold>Alteraciones del lenguaje y comunicación en los Trastornos del Espectro  Alcohólico Fetal (TEAF)</bold>
</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">
<bold>Language and communication disorders in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)</bold>
</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
<alt-title alt-title-type="rt-running">Alteraciones del lenguaje y comunicación en TEAF</alt-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Vega-Rodríguez</surname>
<given-names>Yuri E.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
<email>yvega@ubiobio.cl</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Garayzábal-Heinze</surname>
<given-names>Elena</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
<email>elena.garayzabal@uam.es</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>Moraleda-Sepúlveda</surname>
<given-names>Esther</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/>
<email>esmora01@ucm.es</email>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España.</institution>
<country country="CL">Chile</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad del Bío-Bío</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, España. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7534-9141.</institution>
<country country="ES">España</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Complutense de Madrid, España. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5486-9455.</institution>
<country country="ES">España</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<season>May-December</season>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>41</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>2</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received" publication-format="dd mes yyyy">
<day>04</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted" publication-format="dd/mm/yy">
<day>25</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0 Internacional. La revista no retiene los derechos de reproducción (copyright) por lo que los autores pueden volver a publicar sus trabajos con la sola mención a la fuente original de publicación.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<copyright-holder>CIIPCA</copyright-holder>
<ali:free_to_read/>
<license xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">
<ali:license_ref>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/</ali:license_ref>
<license-p>Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0 Internacional.</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>En población infantil que presenta Trastornos del Espectro Alcohólico Fetal (TEAF) se observan manifestaciones clínicas que interfieren en el desarrollo del lenguaje y la comunicación y que, por tanto, afectan su inclusión social. Por ello, se hace necesario que desde el ámbito fonoaudiológico como educativo se conozcan las características que presenta esta población. El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer la evidencia científica actual y disponible, específicamente sobre las características lingüísticas y comunicativas en TEAF. Para ello se realizó una revisión de la literatura científica sobre el tema, en artículos publicados desde 2010 a 2020 en las bases de datos Pubmed, Scopus, Ebsco, ScienceDirect, en población menor de edad. Tras la revisión de criterios de inclusión sobre los títulos y resúmenes, se analizó con el programa Atlas Ti 7.5.4.  el contenido de 34 publicaciones a través de una codificación abierta de los textos, para la identificación de dimensiones de significado emergente. Se obtuvieron diferentes dimensiones en relación al lenguaje expresivo, características comunicativas y sociales, lenguaje comprensivo y características motoras orales, y se observaron alteraciones en todas ellas. La diversidad de alteraciones lingüísticas y comunicativas que presenta la población con TEAF demanda que reciba de manera temprana intervención fonoaudiológica que le permita el desarrollo de habilidades necesarias para un mejor desempeño educativo e inclusión social.</p>
</abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave</title>
<kwd>Trastornos del Espectro Alcohólico Fetal</kwd>
<kwd>trastornos del neurodesarrollo</kwd>
<kwd>trastornos del lenguaje infantil</kwd>
<kwd>fonoaudiología</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders</kwd>
<kwd>neurodevelopmental disorder</kwd>
<kwd>language disorders</kwd>
<kwd>speech language pathology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="2"/>
<table-count count="1"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="54"/>
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<custom-meta>
<meta-name>redalyc-journal-id</meta-name>
<meta-value>180</meta-value>
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</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Introducción</bold>
</title>
<p>La exposición al alcohol durante la gestación genera diferentes grados de afectación en la población infantil, que han resultado en la descripción de un cuadro específico denominado Trastornos del Espectro Alcohólico Fetal (FASD, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, por sus siglas en inglés) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref5">Chudley et al., 2005</xref>). El cuadro semiológico tiene tres tipos de manifestaciones clínicas muy concretas: retraso en el crecimiento intra y extrauterino, dismorfismo facial y trastornos morfofuncionales del neurodesarrollo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref10">Evrard, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref28">Mattson et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref37">Nulman et al., 2018</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref38"> Paintner et al., 2012</xref>). La exposición al alcohol puede generar una disminución tanto del cociente intelectual como en el funcionamiento ejecutivo, lo cual, sin duda, tiene un impacto en las características psicológicas de los afectados. De este modo, se han observado limitaciones en las habilidades cognitivas, alteraciones en el desarrollo psicomotor, en el aprendizaje de nueva información verbal, en tareas visoespaciales, en el comportamiento motriz fino, en el aprendizaje no verbal, en los aprendizajes educativos y trastornos de conducta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref12">Fernández-Mayoralas y Fernández-Jaén, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref23">Kuehn et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref29">Mattson et al., 2001</xref>). Del mismo modo, el funcionamiento de los procesos cognitivos en general se ve afectado y se observan deficiencias graves en muchos de los dominios neurocognitivos como la atención, la memoria, las funciones ejecutivas, las habilidades motoras, la regulación afectiva y el desarrollo del lenguaje <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref22">(Kodituwakku, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref28">Mattson et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref44">Schonfeld et al., 2001</xref>). Estas alteraciones en el neurodesarrollo, que forman parte del cuadro de TEAF, por lo general vienen acompañadas de traumas y situaciones adversas que se pueden dar durante la gestación o durante la infancia temprana, sobre todo los primeros años de vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref18">Henry et al., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref20">Hyter y Way, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref51">Vega-Rodríguez et al., 2020)</xref>.</p>
<p>En cuanto al desarrollo del lenguaje, los procesos de comprensión y expresión lingüística, en esta población, se manifiestan con déficits significativos <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref15">(Ganthous et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref31">McGee et al., 2009</xref>). La mayoría de las investigaciones coinciden en que el vocabulario comprensivo y expresivo durante tareas de elicitación espontánea se encuentra comprometido <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref15">(Ganthous et al., 2015</xref>). En general, se observan dificultades en habilidades semánticas, sintácticas, fonológicas, articulatorias, pragmáticas y narrativas, con diferentes grados de compromiso. Asimismo, se describen alteraciones en el vocabulario oral, vocabulario relacional, imitación de oraciones, comprensión gramatical, y se ven afectados en todos los rangos de edad; en los niños más pequeños, se sugiere un déficit más global, mientras que en los mayores persisten dificultades en los elementos sintácticos del lenguaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref15">Ganthous et al., 2015</xref>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref31">; McGee et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref51">Vega-Rodríguez et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref54">Wyper y Rasmussen, 2011</xref>). Algunos estudios han mostrado la utilidad del análisis de la narración para identificar individuos con TEAF en edad escolar, pues del análisis de la gramática, los aspectos microestructurales, la coherencia y la cohesión se puede determinar su mayor o menor compromiso y marcar una asociación con la gravedad del diagnóstico de TEAF (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref49">Thorne et al., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref47">Thorne y Coggins, 2008</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref48"> Thorne te al.,2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Como se puede apreciar, existen muchos factores que son consecuencia de la exposición prenatal al alcohol y que la severidad del cuadro TEAF y su complejidad tendría mucha relación con el momento de la gestación en que se ha producido la ingesta de alcohol y la cantidad ingerida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref1">Archer, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref19">Hoyme et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref30">May et al., 2013</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref43"> Schambra et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>La heterogeneidad antes descripta y el amplio rango de dificultades lingüísticas y comunicativas observadas, sumados al bajo diagnóstico que se encuentra en este tipo de población, demanda desde el trabajo fonoaudiológico contar con un conocimiento específico de esta heterogeneidad de alteraciones en los afectados por TEAF, para generar intervenciones específicas en las áreas comprometidas. Por tal motivo, el objetivo de esta revisión es conocer la evidencia científica disponible acerca de las características lingüísticas y comunicativas de la población menor de edad que presenta TEAF, pues los cuadros de TEAF desde la perspectiva fonoaudiológica están poco descriptos, a pesar del impacto que tienen tanto en el ámbito educativo como en el social de los afectados.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Método</bold>
</title>
<p>Para dar cuenta del perfil lingüístico y comunicativo, se llevó a cabo una revisión con un enfoque cualitativo de la bibliografía disponible en relación con las alteraciones del lenguaje y la comunicación en los TEAF. Se realizó una búsqueda en las bases de datos Pubmed, Science Direct, SCOPUS y EBSCO. Se plantearon los siguientes criterios de inclusión: que fueran artículos publicados desde 2010 hasta 2020, con acceso completo, sin distinción de idioma, en humanos y en menores de edad hasta los 18 años. La estrategia de búsqueda utilizada fue la siguiente: en primer lugar, se definieron dos descriptores MeSH: <italic>fetal alcohol spectrum disorder y communication disorders</italic>; este último se seleccionó dado que engloba en sus subcategorías tanto el descriptor desórdenes/trastornos del lenguaje y del habla, como el de la comunicación. Para la base de datos PubMed se usó el siguiente comando: ("<italic>Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders</italic>"[Mesh]) AND "Communication Disorders"[Mesh] y con los filtros correspondientes a la fecha, edad y en humanos.</p>
<p>En la base de datos EBSCO se utilizó el método booleano usando los mismos descriptores y limitación de fecha previamente establecidos. En las bases Science Direct y Scopus el comando de búsqueda fue “<italic>fetal alcohol spectrum disorders</italic> AND <italic>communication disorders</italic>” y con la limitación de fecha, artículos de revisión y artículos de investigación. El periodo de obtención de la información fue entre abril y junio de 2021, apoyándose en el gestor bibliográfico Mendeley, para la recopilación de la información.</p>
<p>El proceso de búsqueda en las cuatro bases de datos arrojó 48 artículos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">Figura 1)</xref>; se eliminaron los duplicados y se obtuvieron 36 artículos. Posteriormente, se procedió a revisar los resúmenes, para lo que se consideraron estudios elegibles aquellos que contenían elementos relacionados con el propósito de la investigación, y se excluyeron aquellos que no cumplieron con los parámetros de edad y que no fueran en humanos; se eliminaron dos estudios más y se analizó un corpus con un total de 34 artículos. El listado de documentos seleccionados en el proceso de búsqueda se encuentra en el Anexo 1.</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf2">
<label>
<bold>Figura 1.</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<italic>
<bold>Flujograma proceso de búsqueda</bold>
</italic>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 1. Flujograma proceso de búsqueda</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="18081840001_gf3.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 1. Flujograma proceso de búsqueda</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>Para el análisis de los artículos se usó el paquete estadístico Atlas Ti. versión 7.5.4.</p>
<p>Desde un enfoque interpretativo, y por medio de la ejecución de una codificación abierta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref42">(San Martín, 2014</xref>), el análisis se realizó sobre la lectura comprensiva de los resultados de las investigaciones y de elementos que tuviesen relación con habilidades y alteraciones lingüísticas y comunicativas.</p>
<p>Durante la lectura comprensiva de cada artículo, en el programa Atlas Ti. versión 7.5.4, se extrajeron citas que tenían relación con alteraciones en habilidades específicas del lenguaje y la comunicación en general. Posteriormente, aquellas citas relacionadas entre sí, se fueron agrupando en códigos, los cuales se nombraban en la medida que se avanzaba en la lectura. El nombre que se les dio a estos códigos hace referencia a niveles, subáreas o competencias dentro del lenguaje y la comunicación; a continuación, estos códigos se organizaron en dimensiones que hacían referencia a áreas de desarrollo. Cabe destacar que a medida que se avanzaba en la lectura comprensiva de los artículos, se identificaron varios elementos de gran relevancia para el abordaje fonoaudiológico de la población de estudio y que interfieren en el desarrollo del lenguaje y la comunicación; estos elementos estaban relacionados con el contexto de desarrollo, existencia de factores de adversidad temprana, comorbilidades, necesidad de abordaje interdisciplinar, entre otros. Las dimensiones que eran específicas del trabajo fonoaudiológico se conformaron como una superdimensión nombrada Características Lingüísticas y Comunicativas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf3">(Figura 2</xref>). Algunas citas podían pertenecer a más de un código, y los códigos también podían pertenecer a más de una dimensión. Todo ello permitió la extracción de 194 citas, con las cuales se conformaron 127 códigos, que se organizaron en 11 dimensiones y una superdimensión <xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf3">(Figura 2</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf3">
<label>
<bold>Figura 2.</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>Dimensiones y número de códigos por dimensión</italic>
</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 2. Dimensiones y número de códigos por dimensión</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="18081840001_gf4.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 2. Dimensiones y número de códigos por dimensión</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Análisis</bold>
</title>
<p>Para atender el objetivo planteado en la introducción, y con el fin de determinar el patrón de alteraciones lingüísticas y comunicativas que evidencia la población infantil que presenta TEAF, se describen a continuación los hallazgos del análisis de los documentos.</p>
<p>Las dificultades en el desarrollo del lenguaje en la población con TEAF son evidentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref8">Connolly et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref9">De Beer et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref27">Matijević et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref39">Rogers et al., 2015</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref52"> Wang et al., 2011</xref>) y el grado de deficiencia es similar tanto en lenguaje expresivo como en lenguaje comprensivo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref21">(Kippin et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref35">Nash y Davies, 2017</xref>). En cuanto a la dimensión Lenguaje Expresivo, incluyendo algunas de las características motoras orales relacionadas, se pueden observar dificultades que van desde déficits en el desarrollo del habla (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref9">De Beer et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref13">Fisher et al., 2019</xref>) y de las habilidades articulatorias -que se traducen en  precisión articulatoria e inteligibilidad bajas debido a la presencia de procesos fonológicos de simplificación <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref9">(De Beer et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref13">Fisher et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref14">Fortnum et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref27">Matijević et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref45">Terband et al., 2018</xref>)- hasta dificultades en la repetición de pseudopalabras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref45">Terband et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref46">Thorne, 2017</xref>). En cuanto a problemas gramaticales, se describen déficits, errores y sobregeneralización de reglas gramaticales, en el desarrollo de morfemas verbales irregulares de pasado hasta edades avanzadas, en las concordancias de sujeto y verbo o la tendencia a omitir los artículos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref45">Terband et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref46">Thorne, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref52">Wang et al., 2011</xref>). Algunos autores  plantean que los errores gramaticales pueden predecir si el narrador es un sujeto con TEAF (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref46">Thorne, 2017</xref>), o que a mayor complejidad del TEAF mayores son las dificultades en aspectos macroestructurales, menor el nivel en la coherencia global y baja diversidad léxica en las narraciones orales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref16">Ganthous et al., 2017</xref>). Sin embargo, lejos de configurar un perfil concreto de los afectados por TEAF, esto se ha descripto también para otros síndromes que presentan diversidad funcional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref17">Garayzábal et al., 2011</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref24"> Lazaro et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref33">Moraleda, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref41">Rossi et al., 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>En cuanto a la dimensión “Características Comunicativas y Sociales”, las personas con TEAF se manifiestan muy activas y comunicativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref9">De Beer et al., 2010</xref>); sin embargo, se observan déficits pragmáticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref52">Wang et al., 2011</xref>) y comunicativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref8">Connolly et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref32">McQuire et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref36">Novick et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref52">Wang et al., 2011)</xref> que afectan a la comunicación y cognición social (De Beer et al., 2010; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref39">Rogers et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref40">Romani et al., 2018</xref>) y que son más evidentes a medida que van creciendo (De Beer et al., 2010; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref11">Fagerlund et al., 2012</xref>). En general, se describen dificultades para expresarse y participar en una conversación según su edad cronológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref21">Kippin et al., 2018)</xref>.</p>
<p>En relación a la dimensión Lenguaje Comprensivo, en esta población se observa una baja discriminación auditiva y dificultades en el desarrollo auditivo (De Beer et al., 2010; Terband et al., 2018) con bajas puntuaciones en el lenguaje receptivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref34">Mukherjee et al., 2019)</xref> y bajas puntuaciones en lenguaje sin trastorno cognitivo no verbal (Kippin et al., 2018). Se observan déficits generalizados en el procesamiento e integración de la información (De Beer et al., 2010; Novick et al., 2011), dificultades en la comprensión de palabras (Matijević et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2011), dificultades para comprender lo que otros dicen en un contexto conversacional (Kippin et al., 2018) y problemas en el procesamiento de la información social (Novick et al., 2011).</p>
<p>Con respecto a la dimensión Características Motoras Orales, las dificultades en el desarrollo motor constituyen una de las características de los pacientes que presentan TEAF (De Beer et al., 2010; Fisher et al., 2019; Fortnum et al., 2018; Matijević et al., 2014). Estas dificultades afectan a las habilidades motoras orales, y los errores de habla posiblemente estén  asociados a factores como la estructura craneofacial  (Terband et al., 2018), con un índice de DDE (<italic>developmental defects of enamel</italic> / defectos de desarrollo del esmalte)  modificado y con un  índice DMFT (<italic>decayed, missing, filled teeth</italic> / dientes cariados, perdidos y obturados) mayor que en controles, con respiración oral, con malos hábitos orales<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref2"> (Blanck-Lubarsch et al., 2019</xref>) y con dificultades diadococinéticas (Terband et al., 2018). Un dato relevante obtenido en la revisión es que la institucionalización temprana de los afectados por TEAF impide la lactancia materna (Blanck-Lubarsch et al., 2019), por lo que muchos menores presentan dificultades en la alimentación (De Beer et al., 2010) y necesitan terapia de alimentación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref27">Matijević et al., 2014</xref>), además de terapia miofuncional que les permita desarrollar fuerza y coordinación de las estructuras y de la musculatura facial (labios, lengua, velo del paladar), no solo para la deglución, sino también para el desarrollo del habla, dado el componente motor que este presenta. A través de la lactancia y de la adecuada alimentación desde el nacimiento, se va ejercitando un complejo sistema motor que tiene importantes implicaciones para el correcto desarrollo oromotor y del habla (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref26">López, 2016</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Discusión</bold>
</title>
<p>Esta revisión ha permitido conocer la diversidad de alteraciones lingüísticas y comunicativas que presenta la población con TEAF. Algunos estudios plantean que la heterogeneidad en los componentes del lenguaje comprometidos, la disminución en el rendimiento intelectual y las características conductuales, se deben al periodo de gestación en que se dio la exposición al alcohol y a la cantidad ingerida (Archer, 2011; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref15">Ganthous et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref19">Hoyme et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref22">Kodituwakku, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref43">Schambra et al., 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>No obstante, el presente estudio se centró en las características lingüísticas y comunicativas de la población menor de edad con TEAF, y se identificaron varios elementos que interfieren en el adecuado desarrollo y adquisición de esas habilidades, y que son de gran importancia en el abordaje fonoaudiológico de esta población, ya en edades tempranas. Existe evidencia de la comorbilidad entre el TEAF y condiciones ambientales adversas que se integran en esta población y comprometen seriamente el lenguaje y las habilidades comunicativas y sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref6">Coggins et al., 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref51">Vega-Rodríguez et al., 2020</xref>). De este modo, se observa que los factores contextuales y factores adversos tempranos a los que son expuestos los menores con TEAF incrementan esas alteraciones y justifica que reciban de manera oportuna, no solo la intervención fonoaudiológica que les permita el desarrollo de habilidades lingüísticas y comunicativas -necesarias para un mejor desempeño educativo y que favorezca su  inclusión social- sino un abordaje multidisciplinar, interdisciplinar y colaborativo, como lo es el apoyo psiquiátrico, farmacológico, fisioterapéutico, psicológico, nutricional, oftalmológico, otorrinolaringológico, odontológico, de integración sensorial y de terapia ocupacional, entre otros <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref2">(Blanck-Lubarsch et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref3">Calles, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref4">Chasnoff et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref8">Connolly et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref9">De Beer et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref27">Matijević et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref35">Nash y Davies, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref53">Wynn et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Las dificultades de aprendizaje constituyen otra de las características observadas en los afectados por TEAF que muestran un bajo rendimiento académico relacionado con su bajo funcionamiento cognitivo; por ello es necesario que durante toda la vida escolar estén especialmente guiados por sus necesidades educativas, y en algunos casos requieren ingresar en un sistema de educación especial (Coles, 2011; Connolly et al., 2016; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref13">Fisher et al., 2019</xref>; Matijević et al., 2014; McQuire et al., 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref35">Nash y Davies, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref36">Novick et al., 2011</xref>) .</p>
<p>Cuando hay presencia de perfiles clínicos complejos, que involucran dificultades de lenguaje, cognitivas, sociales, de atención y de comunicación social efectiva, entre otras, se presenta un gran desafío para los profesionales que trabajan con estos menores a lo largo de toda su etapa educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref50">Timler et al., 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref51">Vega-Rodríguez et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Existe también un desafío previo, en la etapa gestacional por parte de los profesionales de la atención primaria, en cuanto a generar estrategias de intervención focalizadas no solo en la futura madre sino en el entorno cercano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_18081840001_ref25">Lichtenberger et al., 2020)</xref>, para educar respecto de las alteraciones en el neurodesarrollo que genera el consumo de alcohol durante el embarazo, y de esta forma reducir los factores tempranos adversos.</p>
<p>En el presente estudio se halló como limitación, y se hizo evidente en el análisis, que las dimensiones que componen la macrodimensión “características lingüísticas y comunicativas” son generales, y los códigos que las componen no permiten generar un perfil de habilidades lingüísticas y comunicativas expresado en niveles del lenguaje, lo que muestra la necesidad de que exista desde la investigación fonoaudiológica, una exploración más específica en esta población en relación a dichas habilidades, que permita posteriormente la descripción más amplia del desarrollo lingüístico y comunicativo expresado en niveles del lenguaje, y que facilite la generación de planes de abordaje fonoaudiológico específico.</p>
<p>Finalmente, aunque dentro de los criterios de búsqueda no hubo limitación de idioma, y a pesar de que, independientemente del idioma de las revistas indexadas, los títulos y las palabras clave también se encuentran en inglés, entre los artículos analizados no había ninguno en lengua española, lo que evidencia también una necesidad de publicación en ese idioma, que permita -no solo a investigadores, sino también a profesionales, clínicos y familias- acercarse a los estudios sobre el tema, para facilitar la toma de decisiones en cuanto a los apoyos que demanda esta población.</p>
<p>
<table-wrap id="gt1">
<label>Anexo 1.</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>Documentos incluidos en el estudio</italic>
</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Anexo 1. Documentos incluidos en el estudio</alt-text>
<alternatives>
<graphic xlink:href="18081840001_gt2.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait"/>
<table id="gt2-526564616c7963">
<thead style="display:none;">
<tr style="display:none;">
<th style="display:none;"/>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<bold>Autores</bold>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<bold>Año</bold>
</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">
<bold>Título del artículo</bold>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Blanck-Lubarsch, M., Dirksen, D., Feldmann, R., Sauerland, C., Hohoff, A.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tooth Malformations, DMTF Index, Speech Impairment and Oral Habits in patients with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kippin, N., Leitão, S., Watkins, R., Finlay-Jones, A., Condon, C., Marriott, R., Mutch, R. Bower, C.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2018</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Language diversity, language disorder, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among youth sentenced to detention in Western Australia</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Terband, H., Spruit, M.,Maassen, B.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2018</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Speech Impairment in Boys with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Thorne, J.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2017</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Accentuate the Negative: Grammatical Errors During Narrative Production as a Clinical Marker of Central Nervous System Abnormality in School-Aged Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ganthous, G., Rossi, N., Giacheti, C.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2017</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral narrative of individuals with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kable, J., Taddeo, E.,Strickland, D., Coles, C. D.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2015</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Community translation of the Math Interactive Learning Experience Program for children with FASD</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Popova, S., Lange, S., Burd, L., Shield, K., Rehm, J.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2014</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cost of speech-language intervention for children and youth with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Canada</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kjellmer, L., Olswang, L.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2013</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Variability in Classroom Social Communication: Performance of Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and Typically Developing Peers</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alex, K., Feldmann, R.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2012</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Children and Adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Better social and emotional Integration after Early Diagnosis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fagerlund, A., Autti-Rämö, I., Kalland, M., Santtila, P., Hoyme, E., Mattson, S., Korkman, M.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2012</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Adaptive behavior in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with specific learning disability and typical development</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Coles, C.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Discriminating the Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure from other Behavioral and Learning Disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Olswang, L., Svensson, L.,Astley, S.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Observation of Classroom Social Communication: Do Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Spend Their Time Differently Than Their Typically Developing Peers?</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">De Beer, M., Kritzinger, A., Zsilavecz, U.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2010</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Young children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder-communication profiles</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Chasnoff, I., Wells, A.,King, L.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2015</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Misdiagnosis and Missed Diagnoses in Foster and Adopted Children with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mukherjee, R., Cook, P.,Norgate, S., Price, A.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Neurodevelopmental outcomes in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) with and without exposure to neglect: Clinical cohort data from a national FASD diagnostic clinic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Zhang, K., Luo, J.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Role of MCP-1 and CCR2 in alcohol neurotoxicity</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Matijević, V., Bartolović, J., Crnković, M., Košiček, T., Barišić, I.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2014</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Habilitational treatment of a child with fetal alcohol syndrome: Case Report. (El texto no estaba en EBSCO, se descargó desde Semantics Schoolar)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fisher, E., Loock, C., Melamed, A., Blank, S., Koren, G.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among high-risk children and adolescents in a correctional facility</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Connolly, S., Millians, M.,Peterman, R., Shillingsburg, M.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2016</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">The clinical application of applied behavior analysis in a child with partial fetal alcohol syndrome: A case study</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Novick, N., Gudjonsson, G.,Connor, P.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Suggestibility and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: I'll tell you anything you want to hear.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nash, A., Davies, L.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2017</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: What Pediatric Providers Need to Know</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Huang, L., Otrokocsi, L.,Sperlágh, B.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Role of P2 receptors in normal brain development and in neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">AlHammadi, F.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2017</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Prediction of child language development: A review of literature in early childhood communication disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hughes, N., Ungar, M., Fagan, A., Murray, J., Atilola, O., Nichols, K., Garcia, J., Kinner, S.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2020</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Health determinants of adolescent criminalisation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rogers, C., Nulty, K., Aparicio, M., DeThorne, L.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2015</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Causal effects on child language development: A review of studies in communication sciences and disorders</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Homberg, J., Kyzar, E., Scattoni, M., Norton, W., Pittman, J., Gaikwad, S., Nguyen, M., Poudel, M., Ullmann, J., Diamond, D.,Kaluyeva, A., Parker, M., Brown, R., Song, C., Gainetdinov, R., Gottesman, I., Kalueff, A.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2016</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Genetic and environmental modulation of neurodevelopmental disorders: Translational insights from labs to beds</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Romani, M., Vigliante, M., Faedda, N., Rossetti, S., Pezzuti, L., Guidetti, V., Cardona, F.,</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2018</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Face memory and face recognition in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fortnum, K., Furzer, B., Reid, S., Jackson, B., Elliott, C.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2018</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">The physical literacy of children with behavioural and emotional mental health disorders: A scoping review</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Calles, J.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Cognitive-Adaptive Disabilities</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wang, C., Edelstein, S., Waldinger, L., Lee, C., Bath, E.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2011</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Care of the Foster Child: A Primer for the Pediatrician</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wynn, A., Rotheram-Borus, M., Davis, E., Le Roux, I., Almirol, E., O'Connor, M., Tomlinson, M.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2020</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Identifying fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among South African children at aged 1 and 5 years</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">McQuire, C., Mukherjee, R., Hurt, L., Higgins, A., Greene, G., Farewell, D., Kemp, A., Paranjothy, S.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2019</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Screening prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in a region of the United Kingdom: a population-based birth-cohort study</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Koponen, A., Nissinen, N., Gissler, M., Autti-Rämö, I., Sarkola, T., Kahila, H.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2020</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Prenatal substance exposure, adverse childhood experiences and diagnosed mental and behavioral disorders - A longitudinal register - based matched cohort study in Finland</td>
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<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nkoana, W., Williams, H., Steenkamp, N., Clasby, B., Knowler, H., Schrieff, L.</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2020</td>
<td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Understanding the educational needs of young offenders: a prevalence study of traumatic brain injury and learning disabilities</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</alternatives>
</table-wrap>
</p>
</sec>
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