The least squares linear model (OSL) is one of the most used tools in Political Science ( Kruger & Lewis-Beck, 2008). As long as its assumptions are respected, the estimated coefficients from a random sample give the best linear unbiased estimator of the population’s parameters ( Kennedy, 2005). Unbiased because it does not systematically over or underestimates the parameter’s value and because it gives the smallest variance among all possible estimates ( Lewis-Beck, 1980).

What about when assumptions are violated? In that case, we must adopt techniques better suited to the nature of the data. For instance, imagine a study that investigates the impact of campaign spending on the chance of a candidate being elected or not. Since the dependent variable is binary, some assumptions of the least squares model are violated (homoscedasticity, linearity, and normality) and the estimates may be inconsistent. A logistic regression is the best tool to handle dichotomous dependent variables, that is, when y can only take on two categories: elected or not-elected; adopted the policy or did not adopt the policy; voted for president Bolsonaro or not. Lottes, DeMaris, and Adler (1996) argue that, despite logistic regression’s popularity in the Social Sciences, there is still a lot of confusion regarding its correct use. Given our pedagogical experience, this difficulty is explained by the lack of intuitive teaching materials. Moreover, many undergraduate and graduate programs, as well as textbooks, end their content at linear regression, shortening the dissemination of other data analysis techniques.

To fill this gap, this paper presents an introduction to logistic regression. Our goal is to facilitate the understanding of its practical application. As far as audience, we write to students in the early stages of training and teachers who need materials for quantitative methods courses. Methodologically, we reproduce data from Castro and Nunes (2014) regarding the relationship between involvement in corruption scandals ( Mensalão ² and Sanguessugas ³ scandals) and the reelection chances for candidates running for federal deputy in Brazil in 2006. All data and scripts are available at Open Science Framework (OSF) ⁴ website.

By the end, the reader should be able to identify when a logistic regression should be used, computationally implement the model, and interpret the results. We are aware that this paper does not replace a detailed reading of primary sources on the subject and more technical materials. Nevertheless, we hope to make understanding logistic regression easier to you and to disseminate replicability as data analysis teaching tool.

The remainder of the paper is divided as follows: the next section explains the underlying features logistic regression. The third identifies the main technical conditions that must be met to ensure that the model’s estimates are consistent. The fourth section describes the main statistics that must be observed. Lastly, we provide some recommendations on how to improve the quality of methodological training offered to Political Science undergraduate and graduate students in Brazil.

The use of binary categorical dependent variables is common in Political Science empirical research. For example: voted or not (Nicolau, 2007; Soares, 2000), won or lost the electoral contest ( Speck & Mancuso, 2013; Peixoto, 2009), adhered to the policy or not ( Furlong, 1998), democracy or not-democracy ( Goldsmith, Chalup & Quinlan, 2008), started a war or not ( Henderson & Singer, 2000), appealed a judicial ruling or not ( Epstein, Landes & Posner, 2013). For all these situations, a logistic regression is the best suited technique to model the dependent variable’s variation given a set of independent variables.

In a logistic regression, the dependent variable only has two categories ⁶ . Generally, the occurrence of the event is coded as 1 and its absence as 0. Keeping in mind that codification changes the coefficients’ signal and, therefore, their substantive interpretation. To better understand how a logistic regression works, it is necessary to understand the logic of regression analysis as a whole. Let’s look at the linear model’s classic notation:

Y represents the dependent variable, that is, what we are trying to understand/explain/predict. X represents the independent variable. The intercept, (α), represents the value of Y when X equals zero. The regression coefficient, (β), represents the variation observed in Y associated with the increase of one unit of X. The stochastic term, (ε), represents the error of the model. Technically, it is possible to estimate if there is a linear relationship between a dependent variable (Y) and different independent variables. Moreover, the model allows the observation of the effect magnitude and to test the coefficients’ statistical significance (p-value and confidence intervals).

A logistic regression can be interpreted as a particular case of generalized linear models (GLM) ⁷ , in which the dependent variable is dichotomous. Figure 1 compares the linear and logistic models.

Source: The authors, based on Hair, A. et al. (2019).

Because the dependent variable in the logistic model takes on only two values (0 or 1), the probability predicted by the model must also be limited to that interval. When X (independent variable) takes on lower values, the probability approaches zero. Conversely, as X increases, the probability approaches 1. For Kleibaum and Klein (2010), that logistic functions vary between 0 and 1 explains the model’s popularity. Given that the dependent variable’s binary nature violates some the linear model’s assumptions (homoscedasticity ⁸ , linearity ⁹ , normality), using a linear model to analyze binary variables may generate inefficient and biased coefficients ¹⁰ . To better understand the relationship between linear and logistic models, we reproduced the data from Hosmer, Lemeshow, and Sturdivant (2013) on the association between age and coronary disease (Graph 1) ¹¹ .

Source: The authors based on and Hosmer, Lemeshow, and Sturdivant (2013).

The vertical dashed line represents the age mean: 44,38 years old. The cases were coded as 1 (developed coronary disease) and 0 (did not develop it). The trend is very clear: as age increases, the amount of people diagnosed with coronary disease grows. An intuitive way to observe this pattern is to examine the number of cases using the mean as a parameter for comparison. For example, for people above the mean there more illness cases, while for people below the mean, the larger concentration is in the “did not develop it” category. That is, the graph is stating that there is an association between age and coronary disease. It is in that sense that a logistic regression informs the probability of the event coded as 1 occurring, in the case at hand, developing coronary disease. Table 1 presents the data by age group.

Simply observe the last column to reach the same conclusion presented by Graph 1: the higher the age, the higher the chance to develop coronary diseases. An additional option to visualize the relationship between these variables is to graphically represent the percentage of people who are ill for each age group (Graph 2).

Source: The authors based on Hosmer, Lemeshow, and Sturdivant (2013).

We observe a positive correlation between age (axis X) and the probability to develop cardiac diseases (axis Y) is observed. A logistic regression will inform the direction, magnitude, and the statistical significance level of this relationship. In a nutshell, the researcher must use a logistic regression when the dependent variable is categorical and binary. Given that many variables in the Humanities are categorical, the analytical benefits associated with the correct application and interpretation of a logistic regression are evident ¹² .

Table 2 describes the five stages that should be observed.

The first stage is to identify a research question for which the dependent variable is naturally dichotomous. For example, given the popularity of logistic regression in health research, commonly used variables are: lived/died; sick/not sick; smoker/ non-smoker. Usually, a researcher must forgo from recoding a continuous or discrete variable into a dichotomous categorical one. More clearly, let’s say the interest variable is income per capita. It is wrong to recode income to produce two categories: rich versus poor. Technically, recoding a quantitative variable into a categorical one implies loss of information and that reduces the estimates’ consistency ( Fernandes et al., 2019 ) ¹³ .

At the second stage, the technical requirements must be observed. Despite being more flexible than other statistical techniques, logistic regression is sensitive to, for example, problems of multicollinearity (high levels of correlation between independent variables) ¹⁴ . There are different procedures to minimize this problem. The simplest is to increase the number of observations ( Kennedy, 2005). An additional option is to use some data reduction technique to create a synthetic measure from the variance of the original variables. We must not simply exclude one of the independent variables, under the risk of producing errors in the model specification. In a logistic regression, the size of the sample is key (Hair et al., 2009). Small samples tend to produce inconsistent estimates. On the other hand, excessively large samples increase the power of statistical tests in such a way that any effect tends to be statistically significant, regardless of magnitude. Hosmer and Lemeshow (2000) suggest a minimal n of 400 cases. Hair et al. (2009) suggest a ratio of 10 cases for each independent variable included in the model. Pedhazur (1982) recommends a ratio of 30 cases for each estimated parameter.

Another eventual source for problems is outliers. Extreme cases produce disastrous results in data analysis and in the case of a logistic regression, the presence of atypical observations may harm the model’s fit. Once aberrant cases are detected, a researcher must decide what to do with them. Sometimes an extreme case is nothing more than a typo and can be easily solved. One option is to exclude outliers from the model’s estimation and measure the impact of its inclusion on the coefficients. Another procedure commonly adopted is to recode the case, giving it a less extreme value, the mean for example. In any case, it is important to describe in detail what was done to deal with eventual extreme observations ¹⁵ .

At stage three, the researcher must estimate the model. Here, two procedures are essential: a) report the software and b) and share replication materials, which include the original data, the manipulated data, and the computational scripts ¹⁶ . These procedures increase transparency and make replicability of results easier ( King, 1995; Paranhos et al., 2013 ; Janz, 2016; Figueiredo Filho et al., 2019 ). After estimating the model, the next step is evaluating the goodness of the fit. This can be done by comparing the null model (just the intercept) with the model that incorporates the independent variables. A statistically significant difference between the models indicates that the explanatory variables help to predict the occurrence of the dependent variable. Figure 2 shows the underlying logic of model comparison when we are using logistic regression.

Source: Hair et al. (2009) .

Comparatively, model B has a better fit than model A. This can be observed given the difference in discriminatory power. While model A presents high variability, model B is more precise. For Tabachnick, Fidell, and Ullman,

The fourth stage is the interpretation of results. Unfortunately, many works limit themselves to analyzing the statistical significance of the estimates and do not pay attention to the coefficients’ magnitude. We suggest that researchers interpret the coefficients and substantively discuss how results are related to the research hypothesis. Unlike a linear regression, in which coefficients are easy to interpret, the estimates produced in the logistic model are less intuitive ¹⁷ . This is because the logit transformation informs the independent variable’s effect on the variation of the dependent variable’s natural logarithm of the odds. For example, when considering a coefficient of 0.6, an increase of 0.6 units is expected in the logit of Y every time X increases by one unit. This approach’s main disadvantage is its lack of intelligibility. To state that the amount in logit in ¹⁸ creased 0.6 units is not very intuitive and does not help to understand the relationship between the variables.

A second possibility is to analyze the independent variables’ impact on the odds of Y. To do so, a researcher must get the exponent of the coefficient itself. In our example, the exponential of 0.6 is 1.82. This means that for each additional unit in X, an increase of 1.82 is expected in the chance of Y occurring, keeping other variables constant. Graph 3 illustrates the distribution of a simulation’s exponential function, in which x varies between -5 and 5.

Source: The authors, based on Hosmer, Lemeshow, and Sturdivant (2013).

In a logistic regression, the exponential of a positive value (+) produces a coefficient larger than 1. Conversely, a negative coefficient (-) returns a Exp (β) smaller than 1. A coefficient with a value of zero produces an Exp (β) equal to 1, indicating that the independent variable does not affect the chance of the dependent variable’s occurrence. So, write it down in your notebook: the farther the coefficient is from one, regardless of the direction, the greater the impact of a given independent variable on the chance of the event of interest occurring ¹⁹ .

The third possibility is to estimate the percentage increase in the chance of the occurrence of Y. To do so, one must subtract one unit from the exponentiated regression coefficient and multiply the result by 100, in this case (1.82-1 * 100). Then we have that the increase in one unit of X is associated with an increase of 82% in the chance of Y occurring ( ceteris paribus). The interpretation of the logistic regression’s coefficients may become a little more complicated when the chance is smaller than 1, that is, when the coefficient (β) is negative. One solution is to invert the coefficient (1/coefficient’s value), which makes the interpretation easier. For example, a coefficient of 0.639, when inverted, indicates that when the independent variable decreases by in one unit, an average increase of 1.56 is expected in the chance of the dependent variable occurring.

Lastly, the researcher must validate the results observed with a subsample of its original dataset. This procedure gives the research results more reliability, especially when working with small samples. According to Hair et al. (2009) ,

Unfortunately, this procedure is rarely used by political scientists. We suspect that the reduced use of validation is in part explained by the lack of training on the specificities of logistic regression. The next section presents an applied example of logistic regression and explains how the results should be interpreted.

To illustrate the application of the logistic regression, we replicated the data from Castro and Nunes (2014) on corruption and reelection ²⁰ . However, since our focus is purely methodological, we will not explore the substantive meaning of the conclusions reported by the authors. According to the planning from the previous section, the first step is to identify the dependent variable that will take value “1” for candidates reelected in 2006 and “0” if otherwise ²¹ .

The second step is to verify the technical requirements to estimate the logistic regression. During this step, it is important to observe the presence of outliers, the occurrence of high correlation between independent variables, and an adequate sample size. Due to space limitations, we will reproduce only one of the models presented by Castro and Nunes (2014). Specifically, the sample used to estimate model 5 from Table 6 (p. 41), which has a total of 217 observations and a proportion of 19 cases for each independent variable. We do not find deviant cases and the level of correlation between the variables included in the model is acceptable. Thus, we can move on to the next phase.

The third stage consists of the model’s estimation: ²²

Chart 1 summarizes how the variables were measured.

We will test three hypotheses:

H ₁ : being involved in a corruption scandal reduces the probability of reelection;

H ₂ : the higher campaign spending, the higher the probability of reelection;

H ₃ : the higher the execution of amendments, the higher the probability of reelection.

The first step is to analyze the distribution of the dependent variable. Table 3 summarizes this information.

There is information for 451 cases. From this total, 60.53% of the federal deputies were reelected in 2006, which means 273 occurrences ²³ . We can say then that the probability for reelection is of 0.605. Alternatively, the chance of being reelected can be calculated by the division between the probabilities (yes/no), here, 0.605/0.395 = 1.53. Table 4 illustrates this information.

Considering only candidates involved in corruption scandals, the reelection rate was 17.86%, since 10 out of 56 representatives got a new term ²⁴ . This means that, for this group, the probability for reelection is 0.179 and the chance for reelection is 0.22. For the candidates not involved in corruption scandals, the chance of being reelected is 1.9. Ultimately, in our replication example, the logistic regression consists of the comparative analysis of the reelection percentage of candidates involved in corruption scandals and those not involved ²⁵ .

In terms of the model’s general fit, one of the main tests used is the Hosmer and Lemeshow (2000). This test is considered more robust than a common chi-square, especially when there are continuous independent variables or when the sample’s size is small ( Garson, 2011). Table 5 summarizes the information of interest (value of the test, degrees of freedom, and statistical significance) for Hosmer and Lemeshow tests, and Table 6 shows the same for the Omnibus test of model coefficients.

A non-significant result (p > 0.05) suggests that the model estimated with the independent variables is better than the null model. The estimated model has a chi-square (χ ²) of 6.832 and a p-valor of 0.555, suggesting an adequate fit. Another commonly used adjustment measure is the Omnibus test of model coefficients. It is a chi-square test comparing the model’s variance with the independent variables and the null model (just the intercept).

Unlike the Hosmer and Lemeshow test, a significant result (p < 0.05) suggests an adequate fit. According to the data, the model has a chi-square of 56.356 (p-value < 0.001), that is, the fitted model is better than the null model. The, we should conclude that the independent variables influence the dependent variable’s variation ²⁶ . We do not find these tests in Castro and Nunes’s paper (2014), nor the computational scripts. Table 7 summarizes the coefficients estimated by the logistic regression model in an attempt to reproduce the results reported in Table 6 of Castro and Nunes (2014).

As with a linear regression, the first step is to analyze the estimated coefficients (β). Here, the research must observe the sign of the estimates and compare them with the direction expected in their hypotheses. X ₁₁ (Scandal) has a negative effect (-1.677) on the probability of reelection. Unlike a linear model, logistic regression coefficients does not have an direct interpretation.

There are two main ways of reading the coefficients: a) analyze the odds ratio and b) turn the odds ratio into a percentage. With the former, we conclude that involvement in corruption scandals reduces the chances of being elected. In terms of percentages, being involved in corruption diminishes in 81.2% the probability of being reelected, as theoretically expected by hypothesis 1. When considering campaign expenses, the effect was null, with an Exp (β) = 1.000.

As in Castro and Nunes (2014), we did not find significant effects of the parliamentary amendment variable on the chance of reelection, considering the magnitude of the p-value and the standard error twice as large as the estimate of the impact itself ²⁷ .

After analyzing the coefficients associated with the variables of interest, the next step is to evaluate the quality of the model’s fit. Table 8 summarizes some goodness-of-fit measures typically reported in models estimated by the maximum likelihood ²⁸ .

It is common for statistical packages to show in the output the number of iterations used by the computer to estimate the model. Informing that the model converged after iteration 5 means that the coefficients were estimated via maximum likelihood. Generally, the faster a model converges (less iterations), the better. If the model does not converge, the coefficients are unreliable. One of the main factors that explain a model’s non-convergence is the insufficiency of cases in relation the number of independent variables included in the model.

According to Menard (2002), the log likelihood is a measure of parameter selection in the logistic regression model. However, most statistical packages report the -2 log likelihood (-2LL) and its interpretation is as follows: the larger it is, the worse is the model’s explanatory/predictive capacity. Intuitively, it can be interpreted as a measure of the error when trying to use a determined set of independent variables (model) to explain the dependent variable’s variation. The researcher can request the iteration history of the estimation. The procedure will produce the -2 log likelihood of the null and the fitted models. The difference between them is measured with a chi-square. As it is an error measure, the larger the chi-square, the larger is the error reduction of the fitted model (with the independent variables), in relation to the null model.

Table 8 presents the value of -2LL to make comparing the models easier. In the null model the -2LL was 3,057,559 and the model with independent variables was 237,4225. In this case, we observe a considerable reduction. This means that the model with the independent variables has a superior fit to the null model. Similarly, the BIC (Bayesian Information Criterion) is another measure based on maximum likelihood. The smaller, the better. The model tested has a BIC of 301.891, while the null model’s was 3,066.105. We can extrapolate that and compare several models, not just the null model.

Unlike the linear model, a logistic regression does not have a synthetic measure of the variation in the dependent variable explained by the model, such as the coefficient of determination ²⁹ . However, some measures were developed to guide the researcher regarding the explanatory/predictive power of the model ³⁰ . The most commonly used are Cox & Snell’s pseudo R ² of and Nagelkerke’s ³¹ pseudo R ². For Menard (2002),

For the purposes of this paper, we adopted the following interpretation: the closer to zero, the smaller is the difference between then null model (without any independent variables) and the estimated model. The closer to one, the larger is the difference between the null model and model proposed by the research. At an extreme, a pseudo R ² of zero indicates that the independent variables included do not help to explain the variation of the dependent variable. A pseudo R ² of 1 suggests that the variables explain/predict the variation in Y perfectly. Keeping in mind that we should be less demanding of a logistic model than a linear model in terms of variance explained by the R ².

Lastly, a researcher must analyze the classification table. This report is particularly interesting because it gives a measure of the model’s predictive capacity. Table 9 illustrates the information of interest.

The classification table is frequently referred to as a confusion table. For Garson (2011),

Our classification matrix uses the conventional standard of 50% to allocate cases as 1 (if the predicted probability is higher than 0.5) or 0 (smaller than 0.5). We can evaluate this table using three concepts: accuracy, sensibility, and specificity. The accuracy of the model is the proportion of true positive and true negative cases. According to Table 9, the accuracy of our model was of 71.89% (23.50% + 48.29%). However, the accuracy of a model is not always the most important aspect. In certain cases, what is important is maximizing the rate of true positives or true negatives.

Moving on to sensibility. It is the percentage of cases that has the feature of interest (was reelected) that were accurately predicted by the model (true positives / false positives + true positives). In our example, 48.39% of reelected candidates were correctly classified, out of a total of 58.99% that were actually reelected. This gives us a sensibility of 82.03% (48.39%/58.99%). The specificity of the model is the percentage of cases that do not have the feature of interest (were not reelected), that were correctly classified by the model, that is (true negatives / false negatives + true negatives). As we can see, 23.50% of non-reelected candidates were correctly identified out of a total of 41.01% of non-reelected. This gives us a specificity of 57.30% (23.50%/41.01%). There is a trade-off between sensibility and specificity. When increasing one, the other diminishes. Although sometimes the sensibility of the model is more important (predicting an illness, since one would be able to treat it), at other times it is best to increase specificity (keep corrupt politicians from being elected).

We hope to help students and teachers to better understand how logistic regression works. The absence of calculus, linear and matrix algebra, and advanced statistics limits our ability to understand more advanced data analysis techniques. For this reason, our approach focused on the intuitive exposition of results. We also believe that understanding the intuitive logic of logistic regression is the first step to better understanding the different procedures that exist to deal with categorical data. Computational advances allow researchers with less specific training in Mathematics and Statistics to benefit from the advantages associated with the different multivariate techniques. Given that many variables in Political Science are categorical, the analytical benefits associated with the correct application and interpretation of a logistic model are evident. With this paper, we hope to disseminate the use of logistic regression.

And how to improve the quality of methodological and technical training offered to Political Science undergraduate and graduate students in Brazil? We recommend the following: (1) incorporate of replication as a pedagogical tool in data analysis disciplines; (2) mandatory disciplines on mathematics, calculus, probability, and statistics in undergraduate and graduate curricula. In addition, students must receive training in some programming language; (3) conduct practical exercises involving data analysis with topics typical of Political Science. The emphasis onABSTRACT problems reduces students’ interests on the topic; (4) incentivize student participation in winter/summer courses such as MQ-UFMG and IPSA-USP; (5) promote epistemology and philosophy of science disciplines. The definition of research methods and techniques depend on the epistemological view of what is scientific knowledge and how it should be implemented; (6) diffuse critical reading of papers that use advanced data analysis techniques; (7) keep up with the academic production of journals specialized in methodology such as, for instance, Political Analysis and Political Science Research and Methods; (8) encourage the publication of methodological papers in national journals; (9) foster the creation of research groups and round-tables on methodology and data analysis techniques in professional conferences; (10) fund research projects especially devoted to deepening the knowledge on the main feature of science: method.