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		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rbh</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista Brasileira de História</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. Bras. Hist.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1806-9347</issn>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0102-0188</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Associação Nacional de História - ANPUH</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00002</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1806-93472016v36n71-001</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>O monasticismo de Martinho de Tours e as aristocracias na Gália do século IV</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>Martin of Tours' Monasticism and Aristocracies in Fourth-Century Gaul</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Figuinha</surname>
						<given-names>Matheus Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Pós-doutorado, Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas (FFLCH), Universidade de São Paulo (USP). São Paulo, SP, Brasil. figuinha@yahoo.com1</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<email>figuinha@yahoo.com</email>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub">
				<day>25</day>
				<month>04</month>
				<year>2016</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>71</issue>
			<fpage>13</fpage>
			<lpage>33</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2014</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2015</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMO</title>
				<p>Sulpício Severo afirma, na sua Vida de Martinho (10.8), que muitos nobres residiam em Marmoutier, o monastério fundado pelo protagonista a pouco mais de 3 quilômetros de Tours. Desde o aparecimento dos comentários de Jacques Fontaine à Vida, na década de 1960, os estudiosos têm se apoiado na afirmação de Sulpício para interpretar questões fundamentais do monasticismo martiniano. Eles supõem que a prática do trabalho manual em Marmoutier fosse determinada por valores aristocráticos e que a manutenção material do monastério dependesse dos recursos dos seus membros mais ricos. O objetivo deste artigo é examinar a confiabilidade da afirmação de Sulpício. Argumento que não há indícios claros que a corroboram e que ela, portanto, deve ser considerada com muita cautela.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>Summary:</title>
				<p>In his Vita Martini (10.8), Sulpicius Severus asserts that many nobles resided in Marmoutier, the monastery founded by the saint a few kilometers outside Tours. Since the publication of Jacques Fontaine's comments on the Vita in the 1960's, scholars have relied on Sulpicius' assertion in order to interpret fundamental questions related to Martinian monasticism. They suppose that the practice of manual labor in Marmoutier was determined by aristocratic values and that the material maintenance of the monastery depended on the resources of its richer members. The purpose of this paper is to examine the reliability of Sulpicius' assertion. I argue that there is no clear evidence corroborating it and that it must be considered, therefore, with great caution.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Martinho de Tours</kwd>
				<kwd>Monasticismo</kwd>
				<kwd>Aristocracias</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Martin of Tours</kwd>
				<kwd>Monasticism</kwd>
				<kwd>Aristocracies</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
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				<ref-count count="38"/>
				<page-count count="21"/>
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		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Sulpício Severo dedica o décimo capítulo da Vida de Martinho ao monastério que seu herói fundou a pouco mais de 3 quilômetros de Tours, posteriormente conhecido como Marmoutier. Sulpício descreve a geografia circunstante, a arquitetura do monastério, as regras que nele vigoravam e os monges que dele eram membros. A propósito destes últimos, afirma: &quot;muitos entre eles eram considerados nobres&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.8).</p>
		<p>A afirmação de Sulpício, aceita pelos estudiosos durante muito tempo (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Besse, 1906</xref>, p.17), foi questionada pela primeira vez por Ernest-Charles Babut. Em artigos publicados entre 1910 e 1912 e reunidos no livro Saint Martin de Tours, de 1912, ele acusa Sulpício de insinceridade e sustenta que suas obras martinianas não possuem valor histórico. Como um de seus argumentos, Babut assinala que, entre os discípulos do bispo, apenas Claro aparece nos escritos de Sulpício como clarissimus.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>2</sup></xref> O historiador sugere, além disso, que não era comum, àquela época, que um filho de senador se tornasse monge. A seu favor, retoma uma passagem da própria Vida (25.4), na qual Martinho exorta Sulpício a abandonar o mundo, oferecendo-lhe o exemplo &quot;quase único&quot; de Paulino, futuro bispo de Nola (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Babut, 1912</xref>, p.240-241).</p>
		<p>Apesar das fortes críticas que a tese de Babut já havia suscitado em 1966 (cf., por exemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Delehaye, 1920</xref>), Friedrich Prinz retratou o monasticismo martiniano a partir de muitos argumentos do historiador francês. Na sua importante monografia, Frühes Mönchtum im Frankenreich, Prinz considera o monasticismo martiniano desorganizado institucionalmente, pois teria derivado do exemplo de Martinho, um carismático taumaturgo que destruía templos pagãos no campo. Os monastérios fundados sob sua inspiração, não possuindo continuidade, estrutura e organização (Tageseinteilung), teriam sido fundamentalmente colônias de eremitas, isto é, agrupamentos de anacoretas e monges giróvagos entusiastas ao redor de um homem santo. Além disso, Prinz aponta que o bispo de Tours foi celebrado no século IV e no início do século V apenas por Paulino e Sulpício, dois estranhos (Außenseiter) ao seu monasticismo. O ex-soldado Martinho, que não deixou nenhum escrito, não teria tido uma formação equivalente à deles, pois provinha de uma família modesta, cujo pai havia sido soldado e tribuno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p.19-46 e 452-485). Fica claro, portanto, que Prinz não aceita a presença de nobres em Marmoutier. Mas ele não discute a asserção de Sulpício na passagem 10.8 da Vida.</p>
		<p>Apenas 2 anos após o aparecimento do livro de Prinz, Jacques Fontaine, em seus brilhantes comentários à Vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">1967-1969</xref>), elaborou uma réplica definitiva à tese hipercrítica de Babut, reabilitando, assim, a credibilidade de Sulpício. Fontaine, porém, não questiona a asserção de que nobres povoavam Marmoutier. Pelo contrário: ele supõe que os monges martinianos não praticassem o trabalho manual por causa de preconceitos das aristocracias e que o monastério fosse mantido materialmente com os rendimentos provenientes das propriedades de seus membros mais ricos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.677, 685, 958 e 991). Em estudo mais recente, Fontaine refere-se ao exemplo de Marmoutier, entre outros, para argumentar a favor de um forte influxo do monasticismo sobre as aristocracias ocidentais já na década de 370 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fontaine, 1979</xref>, p.40-43). Em suas obras, os monges martinianos são identificados como &quot;les nobles&quot;, &quot;l'élite de la société gallo-romaine&quot;, &quot;jeunes nobles&quot;, &quot;la clientèle aristocratique, et donc lettrée, de Marmoutier&quot;, &quot;membres de l'aristocratie gallo-romaine&quot;, &quot;la noblesse des Gaules&quot;, &quot;l'aristocratie provinciale&quot;, &quot;les fils des latifondiaires gallo-romains&quot;, termos um tanto vagos e não necessariamente equivalentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.673-674, 678, 683-684, 958, 1059 e 1338-1341; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fontaine, 1973</xref>, p.96 e 100; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fontaine, 1974</xref>, p.270; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fontaine, 1979</xref>, p.41, 48 e 50).</p>
		<p>Desde que apareceu, a posição de Fontaine tem sido aceita sem reservas pelos estudiosos (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Pricoco, 1978</xref>, p.12 e 65-66; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p.70 e 73; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pietri, 1983</xref>, p.52, 603 e 639-640; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.25-26; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Oudart, 1993</xref>, p.127; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, p.50-51; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Dunn, 2003</xref>, p.63; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, p.51, 216 e 415). Alguns historiadores desenvolvem-na, mas não discutem a passagem 10.8 da Vida. É o caso de Richard J. Goodrich, que sugere que as divisões sociais da época permaneceram inalteradas em Marmoutier: os monges de origem aristocrática dedicavam-se ao otium, enquanto servos e escravos executavam as tarefas necessárias e a Igreja arcava com a subsistência do monastério (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Goodrich, 2007</xref>, p.192-196). Roberto Alciati, por sua vez, divide os discípulos de Martinho em apenas dois grupos: os professores de retórica, que detinham um conhecimento modelado pelas escolas de gramática e retórica, e os learned amateurs, que eram interessados por litteratura, mas que não haviam sido professores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, p.53-54 e 58).</p>
		<p>Meu objetivo neste artigo é analisar até que ponto podemos confiar na asserção de Sulpício na passagem 10.8 da Vida. A questão é importante porque não concerne apenas ao caso de Marmoutier. Alguns estudiosos tendem a generalizar seu entendimento do monasticismo martiniano para todas as experiências monásticas da Gália do século IV e, consequentemente, a homogeneizá-las.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Examinar a confiabilidade da passagem 10.8 da Vida, portanto, é o primeiro e mais importante passo para reavaliar a nossa compreensão do monasticismo martiniano, em particular, e do monasticismo gálico, em geral. Nas páginas seguintes, argumento que não existem indícios claros que corroborem a afirmação de Sulpício e que ela, assim, deve ser considerada com muita cautela.</p>
		<p>Este artigo insere-se no contexto de aparecimento dos chamados &quot;homens santos&quot; nos séculos III e IV. Peter (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 1978</xref>) sustenta que, nas cidades da época dos Antoninos, um &quot;modelo de paridade&quot; restringia as tensões entre os aristocratas. Ou seja, a competição por poder, honra e riqueza dissimulava-se em atos de generosidade que favoreciam todos os cidadãos.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4"><sup>4</sup></xref> No momento em que esse &quot;modelo de paridade&quot; desapareceu, ao redor de 260, algumas pessoas começaram a destacar-se de seus pares. Daí o surgimento de &quot;homens santos&quot;, que obtinham uma posição superior na comunidade (urbana ou eclesiástica) porque supostamente mantinham uma relação íntima com o divino. De acordo com Brown, os monges egípcios representam o ápice desse processo: por causa de sua rigorosa ascese, eles, e só eles, desfrutavam de um poder espiritual que se manifestava de modo palpável e contínuo.</p>
		<p>Martinho era um desses &quot;homens santos&quot;. E é por ter atuado como um &quot;homem santo&quot; - Sulpício assegura que ele podia controlar elementos da natureza, curar doenças e ressuscitar os mortos - que ele gozou da admiração de aristocratas (cf. infra) e obteve sucesso em suas campanhas de cristianização do campo.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Mas Martinho, ao mesmo tempo, encontrou forte oposição. As obras de Sulpício devem ser lidas justamente como a defesa do bispo de Tours contra os que condenavam seu passado militar, não acreditavam em seus milagres e associavam seu regime monástico ao priscilianismo. Sulpício queria mostrar, entre outras coisas, que os milagres de seu herói eram autênticos porque ele desfrutava de uma íntima relação com o divino e que essa relação era possível porque ele mantinha um regime monástico impecável (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.72-84; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.149-159).</p>
		<sec>
			<title>OS DISCÍPULOS DE MARTINHO DE TOURS</title>
			<p>Antes de tudo, é necessário esclarecer o sentido dos termos &quot;nobreza&quot; (nobilitas) e &quot;nobre&quot; (nobilis) no século IV. Timothy D. Barnes aponta que &quot;the nobilitas still formed a special group within the senatorial order&quot;: à época, eram nobres estritamente os senadores que haviam chegado ao consulado ordinário, à prefeitura da cidade ou à prefeitura do pretório, bem como seus descendentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Barnes, 1974</xref>, p.445-446). Não há dúvidas de que Barnes esteja correto, mas, como alguns estudiosos indicam, os termos &quot;nobreza&quot; e &quot;nobre&quot; podiam ser empregados com sentidos mais amplos. Ausônio, em suas obras, reivindicou antiga nobreza para sua família, que era, na verdade, curial (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barnish, 1988</xref>, p.122), enquanto Prudêncio, em seu poema Coroas do martírio, e Paulino, em seu Poema 21, igualaram o adjetivo &quot;nobre&quot; a illustris, posição que podia ser alcançada por meio de uma série de cargos públicos (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Salzman, 2001</xref>, p.360).</p>
			<p>O sentido com o qual Sulpício emprega o termo &quot;nobre&quot; na passagem 10.8 da Vida não é claro. É lógico pensarmos que ele o tenha empregado no seu sentido restrito, pois, neste caso, o retrato que ele traça do monasticismo martiniano no décimo capítulo da Vida torna-se muito mais atrativo e comovente aos aristocratas aos quais ele escreve (cf. infra para o público de Sulpício). Mas ele pode muito bem ter se referido a senadores ou mesmo a curiais. Na tentativa de identificar quem eram os discípulos de Martinho, ou seja, os personagens que professavam o monasticismo sob sua direção, e qual era a origem social de cada um deles, terei em mente todas as possibilidades.</p>
			<p>Para o período anterior à fundação de Marmoutier, entre 373 e 374, dispomos de uma única e vaga notícia. Sulpício conta que &quot;certo catecúmeno&quot; (quidam catechumenus) colocou-se sob a direção de Martinho em seu monastério a alguns quilômetros de Poitiers (que ficou conhecido, posteriormente, como Ligugé), mas, logo em seguida, sem nenhuma transição, alude aos &quot;irmãos&quot; que lamentavam a morte do dito catecúmeno (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 7). Fontaine sugere que o projeto de Martinho, originariamente eremítico, logo se transformou em cenobítico. Sulpício não narra as origens e o desenvolvimento do monastério porque estava interessado apenas no milagre operado por Martinho àquela ocasião, daí a menção abrupta aos &quot;irmãos&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.613-616). Ao mesmo tempo, Sulpício não dá nenhuma indicação acerca da origem social do catecúmeno e dos &quot;irmãos&quot;, mas dificilmente teria deixado de fazê-lo caso eles fossem nobres. Sulpício procurava garantir a autenticidade dos milagres de seu herói indicando, sempre que possível, a distinta condição social das testemunhas. Retornaremos em breve a esta questão.</p>
			<p>Sobre os discípulos de Martinho após sua ordenação à cátedra de Tours, entre 371 e 372, existem notícias mais precisas:</p>
			<p>Anatólio, &quot;certo jovem&quot; (iuuenis quidam), colocou-se sob a direção de Claro no eremitério que este havia estabelecido próximo a Marmoutier (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 23.2). Fontaine sugere, baseando-se em seu nome, que ele era de origem asiática, provavelmente um peregrino ou um missionário de alguma seita pneumática. O estudioso indica, ainda, que seu nome era o mesmo de muitos escravos asiáticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.994-995). Penso que Fontaine tenha razão quanto à origem social de Anatólio. Porém, basta folhear os dois primeiros volumes da Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Jones; Mardindale; Morris, 1971</xref>, p.59-62; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Martindale, 1980</xref>, p.83-86) para perceber que Anatólio foi também o nome de personagens importantes nos séculos IV e V.</p>
			<p>O padre Arpágio, provavelmente de Tours (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.213), é citado por Galo como testemunha de um milagre de Martinho (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.3.1). Sulpício não dá nenhuma informação sobre a sua origem social.</p>
			<p>Bélgico é mencionado por Galo nos Diálogos de Sulpício por causa de sua reação ao ler a Carta 22 de Jerônimo (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 1.8.5). A atribuição do adjetivo possessivo noster ao seu nome sugere que ele foi discípulo de Martinho (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p.133; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.335). Não há nenhuma informação sobre a sua origem social.</p>
			<p>Brício, nativo de Tours (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 10.31), foi ordenado diácono e padre por Martinho (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 2.1). Quando este faleceu, em 11 de novembro de 397, Brício foi sagrado seu sucessor (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 2.1 e 10.31). Segundo Sulpício, ele, que &quot;nunca havia possuído nada antes do clericato (de fato, foi criado no monastério pelo próprio Martinho), mantinha cavalos e comprava escravos. Àquela época, era repreendido por muitos por ter comprado não só jovens bárbaros, mas também moças de belo semblante&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.15.2). O fato de não ter possuído nada antes de ser ordenado clérigo indica claramente que ele não era de origem aristocrática. Ele podia criar cavalos e comprar escravos graças ao salário que passou a receber da Igreja após sua ordenação.</p>
			<p>O diácono Catão, &quot;a quem cabia a administração do monastério&quot;, era um ótimo (doctus) pescador (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.10.2). Essa competência, certamente adquirida antes de iniciar sua carreira eclesiástica, indica que ele havia exercido uma atividade braçal e que, portanto, não era aristocrata.</p>
			<p>Claro, identificado por Sulpício como &quot;jovem nobilíssimo&quot; (adulescens nobilissimus), foi ordenado padre ainda jovem. Sulpício admirava-o muito e nutria grande amizade com ele, a ponto de sepultá-lo sob o altar da basílica que construiu em Primuliaco.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Claro, em momento não especificado, construiu um eremitério (tabernaculum, monasterium) próximo a Marmoutier, e alguns monges juntaram-se a ele (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 23.1-2; Paulino, Epp. 23.3 e 32.6). Claro morreu pouco antes de Martinho, provavelmente no mesmo ano (Sulpício Severo, Ep. 2.5). Os estudiosos atribuem a Claro a mais distinta origem social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Babut, 1912</xref>, p.241; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Stroheker, 1948</xref>, p.161; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.989-992; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Heinzelmann, 1982</xref>, p.584; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p.73; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.31; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.479). Fontaine, especificamente, sugere que nobilissimus tem, neste caso, um sentido social e moral. Concordo com o sentido moral do termo, que aparece evidente na frase: &quot;em pouco tempo sobrelevou-se ao topo da fé e de todas as virtudes&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 23.1). Porém, como já mencionei, curiais também podiam apropriar-se do termo &quot;nobre&quot; no século IV. Além disso, Sulpício conta que Claro havia abandonado &quot;tudo&quot; (omnia) para seguir Martinho, mas há uma grande diferença entre abandonar &quot;tudo&quot; e abandonar &quot;grandes riquezas&quot; (summae opes), como se refere Martinho ao caso de Paulino. É muito mais provável, portanto, que Claro fosse proveniente de uma família curial de Tours.</p>
			<p>Eusébio é o destinatário de uma das cartas de Sulpício que constituem o apêndice da Vida (Ep. 1). Na carta, de 397, Eusébio aparece como padre, mas, nos Diálogos (1.9.5), de 404, aparece como bispo. O fato de que ele era membro do círculo dos martinianos de Primuliaco e a decisão de Sulpício de endereçar-lhe uma carta apologética sobre a uirtus de Martinho levam Fontaine a supor que ele era discípulo deste, mais especificamente, &quot;un de ces ascètes distingués de Marmoutier, issus d'illustres familles et que 'nous avons vus ensuite évêques', comme le dit Sulpice à propos du recrutement du monastère&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.1122; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.699). Concordo que Eusébio possa ter sido discípulo de Martinho, mas Sulpício não dá qualquer indicação de que ele era aristocrata, ao contrário do caso de Claro. Considerando o fato de que boa parte dos bispos do século IV provinha das aristocracias locais (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, p.31-52), poderíamos supor que também Eusébio fosse de origem curial. Todavia, o fato de Eusébio ter sido ordenado bispo não significa automaticamente que ele fosse curial. Ele pode ter chegado ao episcopado graças a um período de formação em Marmoutier. Brício, também ordenado bispo, era de origem humilde.</p>
			<p>Galo também era muito próximo a Sulpício. Jogando com seu nome, Galo opõe-se aos aquitanos (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 1.27.2), sendo, consequentemente, originário da diocese civil das Gálias. Ele era sobrinho, por parte de mãe, de Evâncio, possivelmente um burocrata ou um funcionário do palácio, e pertencia, portanto, a uma família abastada ou em ascensão social.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Galo declara ter abandonado a escola para seguir Martinho (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.1.1), mas não se sabe se na condição de aluno ou professor. Por causa da alta qualidade de seus discursos, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p.42-44) e (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, p.51-53) mostram-se a favor da segunda opção. De fato, Galo é chamado de scholasticus (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 1.9.3 e 1.27.5), termo que podia ser usado de modo pejorativo, mas que qualificava os professores de retórica ou os que eram formados nas escolas de retórica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, p.20). Os Diálogos, no entanto, não transcrevem as palavras exatas de Galo. Sulpício certamente corrigiu e adaptou os discursos de todos os que participaram das sessões em defesa de Martinho que compõem a obra.</p>
			<p>Herói é identificado por Próspero de Aquitânia como &quot;homem santo e discípulo do beato Martinho&quot; (Epitoma de Chronicon anno 412, 1247). Ele foi ordenado bispo de Arles em 408, no momento em que Constantino III estabeleceu- se na cidade. Sendo um protegido do usurpador, foi expulso de seu cargo após a tomada da cidade pelo magister militum Constante, em 411. Em uma carta (Ep. 2.4), Zósimo, bispo de Roma, conta que as ordenações de Herói, em Arles, e de Lázaro, em Aix, haviam sido irregulares e haviam contado com a oposição da plebe e do clero. Na mesma carta, Zósimo qualifica-os como &quot;desconhecidos, estrangeiros&quot;. As acusações de Zósimo eram obviamente parciais, pois refletem a versão dos inimigos de Herói e Lázaro. Mas as comunidades de Arles e Aix não teriam se oposto a suas ordenações e Zósimo não teria se referido a eles como &quot;desconhecidos, estrangeiros&quot; caso fossem de família senatorial. Poderíamos pensar que eles, porque foram ordenados bispos, proviessem de famílias curiais. Mas ambos chegaram ao episcopado apenas por intermédio de Constantino III. Eram, mais provavelmente, de origem modesta.</p>
			<p>Lázaro foi ordenado bispo de Aix em circunstâncias análogas às de Herói (Zósimo, Ep. 3.3). Ele é considerado discípulo de Martinho por causa da sua proximidade a Herói e por ter alentado, &quot;em muitos concílios&quot;, particularmente no concílio de Turim de 398, as acusações contra Brício (Zósimo, Epp. 3.3 e 4.2). Assim como Herói, é qualificado como desconhecido e estrangeiro por Zósimo, de modo que era, provavelmente, de origem modesta.</p>
			<p>O padre Refrigério, que chegou a Primuliaco ao fim da primeira jornada dos Diálogos, havia seguido Martinho &quot;desde sua primeira juventude&quot;. Foi apresentado por Galo como testemunha de várias histórias contadas na segunda jornada (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.14.5, 3.1.3, 3.5.1, 3.7.5, 3.9.1-3). Porém, nada nos é dito a respeito de sua origem social. Por ter sido padre, poderíamos pensar que ele proviesse de uma família curial. Mas, como no caso de Eusébio, existem fortes dúvidas.</p>
			<p>Sabácio é denominado discípulo de Claro (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 23.7), mas Sulpício não dá nenhuma outra informação sobre ele. De acordo com Luce (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri e Marc Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.1670), ele é o mesmo Sabácio que chegou a Primuliaco no início da segunda jornada dos Diálogos.</p>
			<p>Saturnino, presente na segunda jornada dos Diálogos, foi mencionado em uma história contada por Galo como testemunha da uirtus de Martinho (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.3.6). Era provavelmente discípulo do bispo, já que acompanhou Galo e outros monges martinianos em uma visita pastoral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p.300).</p>
			<p>Vitor, possivelmente originário de Bordeaux (Paulino, Ep. 25*.1), também foi discípulo de Martinho e Claro. A partir de 399, foi encarregado de levar cartas, livros e presentes de Sulpício para Paulino e vice-versa (Paulino, Epp. 23.2-10; 25.1; 25*.1; 26.1; 28.1-4; 29.6; 31.1; 32.5, 9-10 e 17; 33.1; 43.1-3). Vitor havia sido soldado antes de seguir Martinho (Paulino, Ep. 25*.1) e, portanto, não era aristocrata.</p>
			<p>A partir da estreita relação entre Vitrício, bispo de Rouen, e Martinho, e da afinidade de seu caráter, Camille Jullian levanta a hipótese de que o primeiro tenha sido discípulo do segundo em Marmoutier (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Jullian, 1923</xref>, p.50-51).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8"><sup>8</sup></xref> De fato, as semelhanças de suas biografias são surpreendentes: ambos eram soldados convertidos, bispos de grandes cidades provinciais da Gália ocidental, taumaturgos, evangelizadores do campo e fundadores de igrejas e monastérios (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Fontaine, 1982</xref>, p.13-24). É muito provável que Martinho tenha influenciado Vitrício de algum modo, mas é impossível saber se este de fato viveu em Marmoutier antes de sua ordenação. Em minha opinião, se não Sulpício, ao menos Paulino teria dado alguma indicação.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Em todo caso, Vitrício não era aristocrata, já que havia servido como soldado antes de ser ordenado.</p>
			<p>No início da segunda jornada dos Diálogos (3.1.4-5), Sulpício menciona a chegada de uma &quot;turba de monges&quot;, composta pelo padre Evágrio, que estava acompanhado por Aper,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Sabácio e Agrícola, pelo padre Etério, que estava acompanhado pelo diácono Calupião e pelo subdiácono Amator, e, enfim, pelo padre Aurélio. Sulpício fez questão de revelar o título eclesiástico dos que desfrutavam de algum, mas não informa nada a respeito de sua origem social. A referência de Galo ao assento de madeira de Martinho com as palavras &quot;o qual conhecem todos&quot; é um indício de que eles passaram por Marmoutier (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, p.138). Outro indício reside no fato de que eles haviam unido a disciplina monástica à vida clerical, assim como havia feito Martinho. Segundo Sulpício, todos eram originários &quot;de regiões tão diversas&quot;. Mas sua chegada na manhã do dia seguinte àquele em que Galo havia começado a narrar as uirtutes de Martinho, e em dois grupos, cada qual liderado por um padre (Aurélio é o único a chegar sozinho), mostra que, na verdade, eles não podem ter vindo de longe e &quot;de regiões tão diversas&quot;. Supõe-se que tenham se instalado em Primuliaco após a morte de Martinho por causa da perseguição de Brício aos martinianos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.370). Alguns deles são mencionados em outros momentos. Evágrio é citado por Galo como testemunha de um milagre de Martinho (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.2.8). Aper dispersou as &quot;muitas pessoas mundanas&quot; que estavam diante da porta, esperando serem aceitas no auditório, porque pensava que elas eram estimuladas apenas pela curiosidade, não pelo zelo religioso (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.1.6 e 3.5.7). E Sulpício recorre à formula ciceroniana dulcissimus meus para mostrar seu grande afeto pelo padre Aurélio. Quando este ainda era diácono, Sulpício dedicou-lhe a segunda carta do apêndice da Vida, na qual percebemos que ele era frequentador de Primuliaco (Ep. 2.1, 7 e 18). Poderíamos pensar que Aurélio fosse de origem aristocrática por causa de sua proximidade a Sulpício e de seu sacerdócio. Também Evágrio e Etério são identificados como padres. Mas, como nos casos de Eusébio e Refrigério, existem fortes dúvidas. É estranho pensar que Sulpício, que procurou ressaltar seu título eclesiástico, não tenha querido indicar sua origem aristocrática, como o fez no caso de Claro.</p>
			<p>Outros discípulos de Martinho viviam nos arredores de Tours como eremitas.</p>
			<p>Temos notícia de um ex-soldado que queria retirar sua esposa do monastério de mulheres, onde havia sido posta por Martinho, para que vivesse com ele em sua cela (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.1.11).</p>
			<p>Martinho, portanto, promoveu também o monasticismo feminino. Sabe-se que ele, provavelmente em Tours, consagrou a filha de Arbório, sobrinho de ninguém menos do que Ausônio, à virgindade perpétua (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 19.1-2). René Metz estima que, &quot;Après la cérémonie, Arborius a, sans aucun doute, ramené sa fille à la maison; elle vécut son idéal de vierge consacrée dans le milieu familial, selon la pratique courante à l'époque&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Metz, 1961</xref>, p.124). Fontaine, ao contrário, levanta a hipótese de que ela tenha permanecido no monastério de mulheres. O estudioso argumenta que sua oblação pessoal a Martinho remete ao costume egípcio de oferecer oblatos a célebres eremitas ou cenobitas para que deles recebessem uma formação espiritual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.882). Sulpício, todavia, não dá a menor indicação de que a filha de Arbório tenha permanecido em Tours. Além disso, as práticas monásticas femininas da Gália da segunda metade do século IV e os costumes religiosos do Egito faziam parte de mundos muito diferentes, de modo que a analogia de Fontaine não se sustenta. De fato, dada a elevada condição social da filha de Arbório e, como indica Metz, o costume da época, é muito mais provável que ela tenha retornado à casa dos pais para viver seu ideal de virgindade em companhia da família.</p>
			<p>Alguns monges e virgens da comunidade de Tours são mencionados anonimamente (Sulpício Severo, Epp. 2.6 e 3.18-19; Dialogi 2.2.2, 2.5.4, 3.14.6 e 8). Galo também atesta que virgens &quot;de regiões longínquas&quot; dirigiam-se frequentemente a Tours para visitar Martinho (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.12.11), mas não indica quem elas eram e se estavam sob a direção do bispo.</p>
			<p>Na diocese de Martinho, uma virgem retirou-se em uma pequena propriedade (agellum, uillula), escondendo-se da vista de todos os homens (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.12.1-2). Ela certamente possuía a propriedade na qual vivia, mas não estava de nenhum modo relacionada ao monasticismo martiniano. Quando ele foi visitá-la por motivos pastorais, ela recusou-se a recebê-lo.</p>
			<p>Acerca da conversão de um vilarejo (uicus) inominado, Sulpício escreve: &quot;O nome de Cristo, graças aos seus milagres e ao seu exemplo, ganhou tanta força que lá já não se encontram lugares que não estejam repletos de igrejas muito frequentadas e monastérios. Pois onde destruía templos, imediatamente construía igrejas ou monastérios&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 13.9).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Dado o suposto entusiasmo dos camponeses para se converterem e a fundação de monastérios na localidade, é lógico pensar que esses monastérios fossem povoados pelos habitantes locais. Martinho fundou outros monastérios em suas campanhas para converter o campo, talvez do mesmo modo, ou seja, sobre templos pagãos destruídos. Mas monges são mencionados apenas anonimamente. A presença em Tours de monges de uma diocese desconhecida é apenas acenada (Sulpício Severo, Ep. 1.13). Em Clion-sur-Indre encontrava-se uma &quot;multidão de virgens consagradas e santos&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.8.5-9). Amboise era habitado pelo padre Marcelo e por &quot;irmãos&quot;, criticados por Sulpício por sua incapacidade de destruir um santuário pagão (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.8.4-6).</p>
			<p>Outros supostos discípulos de Martinho aparecem nas obras de Gregório de Tours. No seu Livro em glória dos confessores (22), Gregório, apoiando-se em uma Vida composta em versos que não chegou até nós, identifica Máximo como &quot;discípulo do nosso Martinho&quot;. Máximo, buscando o isolamento, estabeleceu-se inicialmente em um monastério na Ilha Bárbara, em Lyon. Porém, tendo se tornado conhecido, decidiu retornar ao seu local de origem, Chinon, um castrum do território de Tours, e lá fundou um monastério. No mesmo Livro (45), Gregório conta que o padre Romano, segundo uma Vida que também se perdeu, foi enterrado próximo a Blaye por Martinho. Por esse motivo, Prinz considera-o discípulo do bispo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p.24). Gregório fala ainda de Martinho, que foi abade de um monastério em Saintes, mas demonstra certa cautela ao identificá-lo como discípulo do bispo de Tours: &quot;Martinho ... como contam, discípulo do nosso Martinho&quot; (Gregório, Liber in gloria confessorum 56). Nos Dez livros de histórias (7.10) enfim, Gregório menciona outro Martinho, que foi sepultado em Brives-la-Gaillarde. Gregório também demonstra certa cautela com relação a ele: &quot;Martinho, como dizem, discípulo do nosso Martinho&quot;. Essas notícias transmitidas por Gregório não encontram suporte em nenhuma fonte contemporânea aos personagens, de modo que são pouco confiáveis. Mesmo nos casos de Máximo e Romano, não temos como julgar a confiabilidade das Vidas que Gregório consultou para escrever sobre eles. Essas Vidas podem ter sido escritas muitos anos após a morte de seus protagonistas e ter se baseado em tradições pouco confiáveis.</p>
			<p>De acordo com uma Vida escrita ao redor de 620 pelo bispo Magnobodo, que se baseou em uma Vida anterior (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii, Praefatio), hoje perdida, Maurílio, originário de Milão, abandonou sua mãe e seus bens para seguir Martinho. Maurílio, que já era leitor, foi então ordenado subdiácono, diácono e padre por Martinho (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1). Desejando isolar-se, porém, Maurílio retirou-se em Angers, onde construiu uma igreja sobre um santuário pagão destruído (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1-2) e um monastério em uma colina próxima à mesma igreja (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 6). Em 423, foi ordenado bispo de Angers. Ainda de acordo com Magnobodo, Maurílio era de origem nobre (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1: de genere nobile ueniens; natalibus claris fuerat oriundus). A Vida, contudo, é pouco confiável: algumas indicações cronológicas plausíveis misturam-se com elementos inverossímeis e numerosos episódios legendários (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p.1286; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p.23). Além disso, a atribuição de origem nobre a um santo era, no século VII, um topos hagiográfico. Assim, por mais que sua associação a Martinho seja cronologicamente possível - Maurílio morreu em 13 de setembro de 453 e, segundo Magnobodo, nonagenário (Vita Maurilii 28) -, não podemos aceitar sua origem nobre sem outra fonte que o corrobore.</p>
			<p>Por fim, as supostas coincidências de Marmoutier com a descrição das tradições druidas de Pompônio Mela - com relação às condições de habitação, ao recrutamento e à formação religiosa conferida por um mestre - levam (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.673-674) a questionar-se:</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Pourquoi, dans l'ordre des mobiles les plus secrets, d'antiques traditions celtiques n'auraient-elles pas eu au moins autant de poids, dans de grandes familles encore partiellement christianisées, dont certains membres pouvaient encore assumer des sacerdoces gaulois (comme en témoigne Ausone à propos du Bajocasse Patera devenu rhéteur à Bordeaux), que les traditions de la 'matière d'Égypte' et le style de vie de l'ascétisme monastique?</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Embora a hipótese de Fontaine seja sugestiva, não temos o menor indício que relacione o recrutamento dos monges de Marmoutier com tradições druidas. Todos os discípulos de Martinho que identificamos acima tinham nomes de origem latina ou grega. Trata-se, portanto, de uma simples coincidência.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>A CONFIABILIDADE DA VIDA DE MARTINHO 10.8</title>
			<p>Esta tentativa de identificar os discípulos de Martinho e sua origem social oferece informações escassas para chegarmos a conclusões definitivas. Temos notícias (em alguns casos, apenas o nome) de 22 personagens que podem ter sido formados em Marmoutier,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12"><sup>12</sup></xref> mas Sulpício atesta que lá viviam quase oitenta monges (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.5).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13"><sup>13</sup></xref> De qualquer modo, existem dados suficientes para formularmos algumas hipóteses. Apenas Claro e Galo aparecem como prováveis membros de famílias curiais e podem ter sido considerados nobres. Poderíamos pensar que o bispo Eusébio e os padres Arpágio, Aurélio, Etério, Evágrio e Refrigério, por causa de seu cargo eclesiástico, também proviessem de famílias curiais, mas existem sérias objeções. Em primeiro lugar, Sulpício não deu a menor indicação de sua origem social, ao contrário do caso de Claro, mesmo tendo feito questão de ressaltar seu título eclesiástico. Em segundo lugar, como no caso de Brício, eles podem ter sido ordenados sacerdotes por causa da formação que tiveram em Marmoutier. Sete discípulos são certamente de origem modesta: Anatólio, Brício, Catão, Herói, Lázaro, Vitor e um anônimo eremita. Dos outros, não temos informações sobre a origem social.</p>
			<p>Essa lista e a impressão de Martinho a respeito do exemplo de Paulino -isto é, que ele &quot;foi quase o único de seu tempo a cumprir os preceitos evangélicos&quot; (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 25.4) - são totalmente concordes. Com relação a essa passagem, Fontaine questiona se Martinho, por acaso, não quis poupar &quot;les autres membres de l'aristocratie gallo-romaine&quot; que residiam em Marmoutier, referindo-se ao exemplo de Paulino como quase único. O estudioso propõe duas hipóteses para explicar as palavras do bispo de Tours. A primeira é que os nobres monges de Marmoutier podiam não ter liquidado todos os seus bens, já que as condições familiares deviam ser diferentes: outros membros de suas famílias teriam continuado a viver no mundo e a usufruir do patrimônio familiar. A segunda é que Paulino, tendo se estabelecido em Nola, teria abandonado voluntariamente sua patria, coisa que os monges de Marmoutier não teriam feito, mesmo que provenientes das províncias mais meridionais da Gália (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.1059).</p>
			<p>As fontes, contudo, não corroboram as hipóteses de Fontaine. Para alguns dos Padres do deserto, de fato, o desterro era um dos deveres mais importantes dos monges (cf. Apophthegmata Patrum, Andreas). Mas, no Ocidente, não se ouviam ecos da necessidade de se expatriar. Em todo caso, Nola não era um lugar estranho para Paulino. Ele havia depositado a primeira barba que cortou no santuário de São Felix e, entre 380 e 381, havia sido governador da Campânia, período em que construiu uma estrada que ligava Nola ao mesmo santuário (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Trout, 1999</xref>, p.47-48). Podemos supor, com maior verossimilhança, que Martinho tenha citado o exemplo de Paulino porque sabia da sua amizade com Sulpício. Chamando a atenção para alguém tão próximo a seu interlocutor, o bispo fez seu conselho tornar-se muito mais ilustrativo e comovente. Mas a passagem tem certamente muito mais sentido se admitirmos que em Marmoutier não se encontravam aristocratas do calibre de Paulino. Martinho, assim como Agostinho (Epp. 27 e 31) e Ambrósio (Ep. 58.1), estava muito impressionado, justamente porque, como confirma a lista de seus discípulos, nunca havia tido notícia da conversão ao monasticismo de um rico senador.</p>
			<p>Uma passagem dos Diálogos (3.14.5-6) corrobora esta conclusão:</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>[O ex-vicário Licôncio] ofereceu-lhe cem libras de prata, as quais o homem santo não recusou nem aceitou; mas, antes que aquela quantidade passasse pela entrada do monastério, destinou-a ao resgate de prisioneiros. E já que os irmãos sugeriam- lhe reservar algo daquele tesouro para as despesas do monastério - a comida era pouca para todos e muitos precisavam de roupas -, disse: &quot;A Igreja nos alimente e nos vista, para que não sejamos vistos pedindo algo para as nossas necessidades&quot;.</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Uma frase da Vida (10.6), &quot;todas as coisas eram postas em comum&quot;, sugere que os monges de Marmoutier haviam contribuído com parte de seus bens para o patrimônio comum do monastério. No entanto, essa passagem dos Diálogos, ao deixar claro que tais bens não eram suficientes para garantir a manutenção do monastério, indica que lá não se encontravam monges com fortunas comparáveis às de grandes senadores. Caso contrário, não entendo como os monges puderam chegar a tamanha penúria (eles careciam de produtos fundamentais para a subsistência), mesmo durante um período de restrições econômicas. Contudo, algumas objeções podem ser levantadas. A primeira é que, como Claro, os monges que possuíam bens podem ter abandonado tudo ao se converterem, de modo que não mais contavam com nenhum rendimento. A segunda é que os muitos nobres mencionados na Vida podiam não residir em Marmoutier desde o início, já que a descrição de Sulpício no décimo capítulo da Vida reflete a situação do monastério na década de 390, cerca de 20 anos após a sua fundação.</p>
			<p>Se, por um lado, apenas dois discípulos de Martinho aparecem convincentemente como aristocratas, Sulpício, por outro lado, procurou destacar os contatos de seu herói com grandes aristocratas e a corte imperial. A esse respeito, Sulpício escreve que Martinho &quot;dava ordens não só a condes e prefeitos, mas também aos próprios reis&quot; (Dialogi 1.24.4). Na lista das altas relações do bispo de Tours, encontramos personagens da administração: Arbório, &quot;ex-prefeito&quot; (uir praefectorius) (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 19.1-2; Dialogi 3.10.6),<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14"><sup>14</sup></xref> o mais importante personagem que Martinho conhecia; Aviciano, &quot;conde&quot; (comes) (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.4.1, 3.5.1, 3.8.1-3), e sua esposa (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.3.1-4); Auspício, &quot;ex-prefeito&quot; (praefectorius uir), e seu filho, Rômulo (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.7); Evâncio (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.2.3-7), tio de Galo; Licôncio, &quot;ex-vicário&quot; (ex uicariis) (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.14.3-5); Tetrádio, &quot;ex-procônsul&quot; (uir proconsularis) (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 17.1-4); e Vicente, &quot;prefeito&quot; (praefectus) (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 1.25.6). Podemos ainda acrescentar à lista os nomes de Merópio Pôncio Paulino (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 19.3 e 25.4; Dialogi 1.23.4 e 3.17.3; Paulino, Ep. 18.9; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pietri; Pietri, 2000</xref>, p.1630-1654) e de Sulpício Severo (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 25.1-3; Ep. 2.6; Dialogi 2.4.1, 2.12.1, 2.13.3-4 e 2.13.8). Entre os imperadores, Martinho visitou Máximo e sua esposa, que supostamente o veneravam muito (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 20; Dialogi 2.6, 3.11; Chronica 2.50.2), e Valentiniano I (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 2.5). Na corte, Martinho encontrou personagens de elevada posição social (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 20.4-7), chegando a defender a causa de alguns deles (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.11.8).</p>
			<p>Teria ainda Martinho estabelecido relações diretas com seus admiradores aristocratas, devotos do ascetismo, que encontramos nos escritos de Sulpício? Conhecemos os nomes de Bássula, sogra de Sulpício (Sulpício Severo, Ep. 3.1- 5); Dágrido, &quot;ex-tribuno&quot; (ex tribunis) (Sulpício Severo, Dialogi 3.5.1); Desidério, a quem Sulpício dedica a Vida; Euquério, &quot;ex-vicário&quot; (ex uicariis), e Celso, &quot;ex-cônsul&quot; (consularis), que chegaram a Primuliaco na segunda jornada dos Diálogos para ouvir as histórias de Galo (Dialogi 3.1.7); e Postumiano, um dos interlocutores dos Diálogos, amigo de Sulpício (Dialogi 1.1.1, 1.5.6, 1.9.6). Além disso, três patres familias são mencionados anonimamente (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 16 e 17.5-7; Dialogi 3.2.3-8).</p>
			<p>Fontaine supõe que os altos contatos de Martinho confirmem a asserção de Sulpício na passagem 10.8 da Vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fontaine, 1993</xref>, p.27). Todavia, nenhum indício corrobora sua suposição. A maioria dos personagens mencionados acima manteve sua carreira secular. Mesmo os que se converteram ao monasticismo - no caso, Paulino e Sulpício - não abandonaram seu estilo de vida refinado para se transferirem a Marmoutier. De fato, ricos aristocratas como eles viviam seu ideal monástico em suas uillae entre parentes e amigos. A única conclusão à qual a lista dos altos contatos de Martinho permite-nos chegar é que muitos aristocratas sentiram-se tocados por ele.</p>
			<p>Sulpício escreveu suas obras martinianas para monges e simpatizantes do monasticismo, para aristocratas letrados, muitos dos quais não estavam dispostos a converterem-se ao cristianismo para não terem de abandonar a literatura clássica, e contra os bispos da Gália, hostis ao passado militar e ao monasticismo de Martinho e céticos quanto aos seus milagres e a sua capacidade de interpretar as Escrituras (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.72-84; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.72-80; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p.121). Os objetivos de Sulpício, ao ressaltar os contatos de seu herói com grandes aristocratas e imperadores, eram mostrar que ele não era apenas um apóstolo de pobres e camponeses e garantir a autenticidade de seus milagres. Ao mesmo tempo, Sulpício visitou Marmoutier diversas vezes (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Delehaye, 1920</xref>, p.34-36; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.29 e 1050; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.71 e 318), de modo que teve oportunidade de conhecer todos os monges que lá moravam. Assim, se não temos notícias sobre a origem social da maior parte dos discípulos de Martinho é porque Sulpício não tinha nada a dizer a respeito. Afirmar que muitos nobres residiam em Marmoutier, circundados de manuscritos (cf. Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.6) e promovidos a cátedras episcopais, mas que voluntariamente haviam abandonado riquezas e conforto, escolhendo uma vida de humildade e mortificações (cf. Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.8-9), era um modo de defender e, ao mesmo tempo, promover o monasticismo martiniano aos seus eruditos leitores.</p>
			<p>Além disso, Sulpício queria, com a inteira descrição de Marmoutier no décimo capítulo da Vida, criticar o suposto clero mundano da Gália, como indica muito bem (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.689):</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Point par point, on y relève des griefs qui s'opposent à la vie parfaite menée à Marmoutier sous la direction de Martin: modestie de l'habitat, du vêtement, de la nourriture et de la boisson, dénuement, solitude, vie contemplative. Tout était là-bas l'envers de la richesse, de l'orgueil et de la mondanité. Ainsi, les exigences de l'apologétique ne sont pas moindres dans la stylisation de ce chapitre, qui pouvait d'abord apparaître comme une pure contemplation de l'idéal ascétique réalisé à Marmoutier selon le coeur de Sulpice.</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Nesta crítica, a presença de muitos nobres queria justamente aumentar o grau da renúncia ao mundo material dos discípulos martinianos: eles seriam aristocratas que, como Claro, haviam abandonado tudo, não pobres que não tinham nada para abandonar. É curioso que Fontaine, que analisou tão bem as estratégias literárias de Sulpício na Vida, tenha aceitado literalmente a asserção de que muitos aristocratas residiam em Marmoutier.</p>
			<p>O único fato que poderia confirmar a afirmação de Sulpício é que muitos monges vestiam pele de camelo (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.8), uma das lembranças mais preciosas que um peregrino devoto do monasticismo podia trazer do Egito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.681). Se os monges martinianos houvessem viajado em peregrinação ao Egito, poderíamos concluir que eles eram de elevada condição social. Ao que parece, todavia, camelos eram criados na Gália tardo-antiga e suas peles forneciam roupas a baixo custo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">de Vogüé, 1988</xref>, p.87; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, p.50). Sulpício enviou uma pele a Paulino ao redor de 400 (Paulino, Ep. 29.1). Em todo caso, peles de camelo adequavam-se perfeitamente à crítica de Sulpício ao suposto clero mundano da Gália. Assim, a indicação de que os monges martinianos vestiam-nas pode ser, no fim das contas, falaciosa.</p>
			<p>Por fim, tenho a impressão de que o próprio Sulpício não estivesse particularmente convencido da presença de &quot;muitos nobres&quot; em Marmoutier. Suas palavras, &quot;muitos entre eles eram considerados [habebantur] nobres&quot; (grifo meu), podem indicar certa reserva de sua parte, mas a informação era demasiado útil ao retrato que ele queria traçar de Marmoutier e do monasticismo martiniano para que fosse descartada. Ele pode ter ouvido essa informação dos próprios monges de Marmoutier,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15"><sup>15</sup></xref> mas não encontrou confirmação.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS</title>
			<p>Não existem indícios claros que corroboram a afirmação de Sulpício de que &quot;muitos nobres&quot; residiam em Marmoutier (Sulpício Severo, Vita Martini 10.8). De todos os discípulos de Martinho que podemos identificar, apenas dois, Claro e Galo, aparecem como aristocratas e podem ter sido considerados nobres. Mas ambos eram, mais provavelmente, de origem curial e suas posses não se comparavam às de grandes senadores. Por mais que a escassez de fontes não nos permita chegar a conclusões definitivas, sugiro que a presença de nobres em Marmoutier deve ser considerada com muita cautela.</p>
			<p>Conclusões como as de Fontaine - de que os monges martinianos não praticavam o trabalho manual por causa de preconceitos da aristocracia e de que Marmoutier era mantido materialmente com rendimentos de propriedades de seus membros mais ricos -, sendo baseadas exclusivamente na passagem 10.8 da Vida, não se sustentam. Igualmente problemáticas são as generalizações dessas conclusões para todas as experiências monásticas da Gália do século IV. Sulpício tinha motivos muito claros para afirmar que Marmoutier era povoado de nobres. Ele queria, de um lado, defender e promover o monasticismo martiniano aos seus eruditos leitores e, de outro, aumentar o grau de renúncia ao mundo material dos monges martinianos para criticar o suposto clero mundano da Gália.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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			<ref id="B38">
				<mixed-citation>______. Quando nosso mundo se tornou cristão (312-394). Trad. Marcos de Castro. 2.ed. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>VEYNE</surname>
							<given-names>Paul</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Quando nosso mundo se tornou cristão (312-394)</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Castro</surname>
							<given-names>Marcos de</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<edition>2</edition>
					<publisher-loc>Rio de Janeiro</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Civilização Brasileira</publisher-name>
					<year>2011</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
				<label>1</label>
				<p>Esta pesquisa foi realizada com apoio da Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Fapesp).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>Babut supõe que todos os membros da ordem senatorial pertencessem à nobilitas.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>Para um exemplo recente, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, p.415).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>Sobre o evergetismo cívico, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Veyne, 1976</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>Para um estudo recente da cristianização do Império romano, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veyne, 2011</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>Quando se converteu ao monasticismo, em 394, Sulpício abandonou a carreira e suas propriedades. Ele manteve a posse de uma única uilla, Primuliaco, situada a oeste de Toulouse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">STANCLIFFE, 1983</xref>, p.30-31). Nessa uilla, ele fundou um monastério e passou a viver na companhia de sua sogra, de ex-escravos, que também se converteram, de amigos e de monges provenientes de Tours.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>Não se sabe exatamente a qual nível social pertencia Evâncio. Galo refere-se a ele como &quot;Euanthius auunculus meus, uir, licet saeculi negotiis occupatus, admodum Christianus&quot; (SULPÍCIO SEVERO, Dialogi 2.2.3) e conta que Martinho curou um de seus escravos domésticos (puerum e familia) em Trier. As ocupações seculares, a posse de escravos domésticos e a casa em Trier sugerem um funcionário da burocracia imperial ou do palácio. Galo pode ter frequentado as escolas com o intuito de ascender socialmente pelo caminho trilhado por seu tio, ou seja, a burocracia ou o serviço palatino. Cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Sivan, 1993</xref>, p.85-91), para exemplos desse tipo. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p.223) pressupõe que Evâncio e o nobre Euentius, cujo epitáfio foi descoberto em Roma e publicado em L'année épigrafique, 1953, no 200, fossem a mesma pessoa. Contudo, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Heinzelmann, 1982</xref>, p.605) já havia corretamente diferenciado os dois personagens.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p.23 e 25) também sustenta que Vitrício foi discípulo de Martinho. Mas Prinz tem uma concepção de discípulo mais ampla do que a minha, considerando também aqueles que, mesmo sem conhecer Martinho, foram influenciados por seu exemplo.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>Paulino, que encontrou Vitrício e Martinho em Vienne (Ep. 18.9), teria certamente dado indicações caso o primeiro tivesse sido discípulo do segundo, já que nessa carta fala da obra missionária de Vitrício, da fundação de monastérios em Rouen e da sua conversão.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn10">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Heinzelmann, 1982</xref>, p.555) recorda que o Aper dos Diálogos pode ser identificado com o Aper destinatário das Epp. 38, 39 e 44 de Paulino de Nola. Este segundo Aper, amigo de Paulino, era rico e havia sido advogado e juiz antes de tornar-se monge. Porém, nada indica que ambos fossem a mesma pessoa. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Fabre, 1948</xref>, p.75) havia já demonstrado cautela ao identificar os dois personagens. De qualquer modo, o Aper amigo de Paulino não foi discípulo de Martinho. A Ep. 38, provavelmente de 399/400 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">FABRE, 1948</xref>, p.75-83), define a conversão de Aper como recente, e a Ep. 44 mostra que ele, após sua conversão, continuou a viver em sua propriedade, cuja administração ficou a cargo de sua esposa, Amanda.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn11">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>Gregório de Tours, em seus Historiarum libri decem 10.31, identifica seis uici onde Martinho fundou igrejas após destruir templos pagãos: Langeais, Sonnay, Amboise, Ciran-la-Latte, Tournon e Candes.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn12">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>Não considero na contagem Máximo, Romano e os dois Martinhos, identificados por Gregório, e Maurílio.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn13">
				<label>13</label>
				<p>Como indica Fontaine (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">1967-1969</xref>, p.674-675), todavia, esse número é provavelmente artificial.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn14">
				<label>14</label>
				<p>Para as notícias prosopográficas de todos os personagens citados neste parágrafo, remeto, especialmente, ao livro mais recente de (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri e Heijmans, 2013</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn15">
				<label>15</label>
				<p>Sobre os informantes de Sulpício, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p.183-205) e (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p.160-173).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn16">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>Babut supposes that all the members of the senatorial order belonged to the nobilitas.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn17">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>For a recent example, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, p. 415).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn18">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>In relation to civic Euergetism, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Veyne, 1976</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn19">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>For a recent study of the Christianization of the Roman Empire, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veyne, 2011</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn20">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>When he converted to monasticism, in 394, Sulpicius abandoned his career and properties. He kept possession of a single uilla, Primuliaco, located to the west of Toulouse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">STANCLIFFE, 1983</xref>, pp. 30-31). In this uilla, he founded a monastery and began to live in the company of his mother-in-law, his former slaves, who had also converted, friends, and monks from Tours.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn21">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>It is not known exactly to which social level Evancius belonged. Gallus refers to him as &quot;Euanthius auunculus meus, uir, licet saeculi negotiis occupatus, admodum Christianus&quot; (SULPÍCIO SEVERO, Dialogi 2.2.3) and states that Martin cured one of his domestic slaves (puerum e familia) in Trier. The secular occupations, the possession of domestic slaves, and the house in Trier suggest an official in the imperial or palace bureaucracy. Gallus could have attended schools with the purpose of ascending socially along the path laid down by his uncle in other words, the bureaucracy or the palatine service. Cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Sivan, 1993</xref>, pp. 85-91), for examples of this type. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p. 223) assumes that Evancius and the noble Euentius, whose epitaph was discovered in Rome and published in L'année épigrafique, 1953, no 200, were the same person. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">However, 1982</xref>, p. 605) had already correctly differentiated the two people.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn22">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p. 23 and 25) also argues that Vitricius was a disciple of Martin. However, Prinz has a broader concept of disciple than me, also taking into account those who, even without knowing Martin, were influenced by his example.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn23">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>Paulinus, who met Vitricius and Martin in Vienne (Ep. 18.9), would certainly have indicated if the former had been the disciple of the latter, since this letter speaks of the missionary work of Vitricius, the foundation of monasteries in Rouen, and his conversion.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn24">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Heinzelmann, 1982</xref>, p. 555) records that the Aper of the Dialogues can be identified with the Aper the receiver of Epp. 38, 39 and 44 from Paulinus de Nola. This second Aper, a friend of Paulinous was rich and had been a lawyer and judge before becoming a monk. However, nothing indicates that they were both the same person. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Fabre, 1948</xref>, p. 75) had already demonstrated caution about identifying the two persons. Furthermore, Aper the friend of Paulinus was not a disciple of Martin. Ep. 38, probably from 399/400 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">FABRE, 1948</xref>, pp. 75-83), defines the conversion of Aper as recent, and Ep. 44 shows that after his conversion he continued to live on his property, whose administration was the responsibility of his wife, Amanda.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn25">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>Gregory of Tours, in Historiarum libri decem 10.31, identifies six uici where Martin founded churches after destroying pagan temples: Langeais, Sonnay, Amboise, Ciran-la-Latte, Tournon, and Candes.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn26">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>I do not consider in the count Maximus, Romano, and the two Martins, identified by Gregory, and Maurilius.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn27">
				<label>13</label>
				<p>As Fontaine indicates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">1967-1969</xref>, pp. 674-675), however, this number is probably artificial.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn28">
				<label>14</label>
				<p>For the prosopographical news about all those cited in this paragraph, I especially draw on the most recent book by (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri and Heijmans, 2013</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn29">
				<label>15</label>
				<p>In relation to Sulpicius' informants, cf. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 183-205) and (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, pp. 160-173).</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title></article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Figuinha</surname>
						<given-names>Matheus Coutinho</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Pós-doutorado, Faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Ciências Humanas (FFLCH), Universidade de São Paulo (USP). São Paulo, SP, Brasil. figuinha@yahoo.com30</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				
			</abstract>
			
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>Sulpicius Severus dedicated the tenth chapter of the Vita Martini to the monastery which his hero founded a little more than three kilometers from Tours, later known as Marmoutier. Sulpicius describes the surrounding geography, the architecture of the monastery, the rules enforced within it, and the monks who were part of it. In relation to the latter, he states: &quot;many among them were considered nobles&quot; (Sulpicius Severo, Vita Martini 10.8).</p>
			<p>Sulpicius' statement, long accepted by scholars (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Besse, 1906</xref>, p. 17), was questioned for the first time by Ernest-Charles Babut. In articles published between 1910 and 1912 and collected in the 1912 book Saint Martin de Tours, de 1912, he accused Sulpicius of insincerity and argues that his works about St. Marin have no historic value. Babut notes that among the disciples of the bishop, only Clarus appears in Sulpicius' writings as clarissimus.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16"><sup>2</sup></xref> In addition, he suggests that it was not common at that time for the son of a senator to become a monk. In his favor, he mentions a tract from the Vita (25.4), in which Martin exhorts Sulpicius to abandon the world, offering him the &quot;almost unique&quot; example of Paulinus, future bishop of Nola (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Babut, 1912</xref>, pp. 240-241).</p>
			<p>Despite the strong criticism that Babut's thesis received in 1966 (cf., for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Delehaye, 1920</xref>), Friedrich Prinz portrayed Martinian monasticism through many of the French historian's arguments. In his important monography, Frühes Mönchtum im Frankenreich, Prinz considers Martinian monasticism as institutionally disorganized, since it had derived from the example of St. Martin, a charismatic thaumaturge who destroyed pagan temples in the countryside. The monasteries founded under his inspiration, did not possess continuity, structure, or organization (Tageseinteilung), had fundamentally been hermit colonies, in other words, groups of enthusiastic hermits and gyrovague monks centered around a holy man. Moreover, Prinz states that the Bishop of Tours was celebrated in the fourth century and the beginning of the fifty only by Paulinus and Sulpicius, two outsiders (Außenseiter) to his monasticism. St Martin, a former soldier who did not leave any writings, did not have the same education as them, since he had come from a modest family, and his father had been a soldier and a tribune (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, pp. 19-46 and 452-485). It is thus clear that Prinz did not accept the presence of nobles in Marmoutier. But he did not discuss Sulpicius' assertion in section 10.8 of the Vita.</p>
			<p>Only two years after the appearance of Prinz's book, Jacques Fontaine, in his brilliant commentaries to the Vita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">1967-1969</xref>), prepared a definitive reply to Babut's hypercritical argument, thereby rehabilitating Sulpicius' credibility. Fontaine, however, did not question the assertion that Marmoutier had been settled by nobles. To the contrary, he assumed that the Martinian monks did not practice manual labor because of the prejudices of the aristocracies and that the monastery was materially provided for by the revenues from the properties of its richest members (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 677, 685, 958, and 991). In a more recent study, Fontaine refers to the example of Marmoutier, amongst others, to argue in favor of a strong influx of monasticism on Western aristocracies in the 370s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Fontaine, 1979</xref>, pp. 40-43). In his works, the Martinian monks are identified as &quot;les nobles&quot;, &quot;l'élite de la société gallo-romaine&quot;, &quot;jeunes nobles&quot;, &quot;la clientèle aristocratique, et donc lettrée, de Marmoutier&quot;, &quot;membres de l'aristocratie gallo-romaine&quot;, &quot;la noblesse des Gaules&quot;, &quot;l'aristocratie provinciale&quot;, &quot;les fils des latifondiaires gallo-romains&quot;, terms that are somewhat vague and not necessarily equivalent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 673-674, 678, 683-684, 958, 1059 and 1338-1341; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fontaine, 1973</xref>, p. 96 and 100; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fontaine, 1974</xref>, p. 270; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fontaine, 1979</xref>, p. 41, 48 and 50).</p>
			<p>Since its publication, Fontaine's position has been unreservedly accepted by scholars (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Pricoco, 1978</xref>, p. 12 and 65-66; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p. 70 and 73; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Pietri, 1983</xref>, p. 52, 603, and 639-640; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, pp. 25-26; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Oudart, 1993</xref>, p. 127; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, pp. 50-51; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Dunn, 2003</xref>, p. 63; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, p. 51, 216, and 415). Some historians have developed them, but do not discuss section 10.8 of the Vita. This is the case of Richard J. Goodrich, who suggests that the social divisions of the time remained unaltered in Marmoutier: monks of an aristocratic origin dedicated themselves to the otium, while servants and slaves did the necessary tasks and the Church was responsible for the subsistence of the monastery (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Goodrich, 2007</xref>, pp. 192-196). Roberto Alciati, in turn, divides St. Martin's disciples into just two groups: the teachers of rhetoric, who had knowledge that had come from grammar and rhetoric schools; and the learned amateurs, who were interested in litteratura, but who had not been teachers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, pp. 53-54 and 58).</p>
			<p>My objective in this article is to analyze up to which point we can trust in Sulpicius' assertion in section 10.8 of the Vita. The question is important because it does not concern only the Marmoutier case. Some scholars tend to generalize their understanding of Martinian monasticism to all the monastic experiences of fourth century Gaul and, consequently to homogenize them.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17"><sup>3</sup></xref> Examining the reliability of section 10.8 of the Vita is therefore the first and most important step to reevaluating our understanding of Martinian monasticism, in particular, and Gallic monasticism in general. In the following pages, I will argue that there does not exist clear evidence that corroborates Sulpicius' assumption, and that he must be considered with great caution.</p>
			<p>This article is inserted in the context of the appearance of the so-called 'saintly men' of the third and fourth centuries. Peter Brown (1978) argues that in the cities of the times of the Antonines, a 'model of parity' restricted tensions among aristocrats. In other words, the competition for power, honor, and wealth was dissimulated in acts of generosity which favoured all citizens.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18"><sup>4</sup></xref> At the moment which this 'model of parity' disappeared, around 260, some people began to stand out among their peers. From here there emerged the 'saintly men,' who obtained superior positions in the (urban or ecclesiastic) community because they supposedly maintained an intimate relationship with the divine. According to Brown, Egyptian monks represented the peak of this process: because of their rigorous asceticism, they, and only they, enjoyed a spiritual power which was shown in a palpable and continuous manner.</p>
			<p>St. Martin was one of these 'saintly men.' Since he had acted as a 'saintly man' - Sulpicius stated that he could control elements of nature, cure diseases, and raise the dead - he enjoyed the admiration of aristocrats (cf. infra) and obtained success in his campaigns for the Christianization of the countryside.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19"><sup>5</sup></xref> However, at the same time, St Martin encountered strong opposition. Sulpicius' work should be read exactly as the defense of the Bishop of Tours against those who condemned his military past, did not believe in his miracles, and associated his monastic regime with Priscillianism. Sulpicius wanted to show, amongst other things, that the miracles of his hero were authentic because he enjoyed an intimate relationship with the divine and that this relationship was possible because he had an impeccable monastic regime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 72-84; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, pp. 149-159).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>THE DISCIPLES OF ST. MARTIN OF TOURS</title>
				<p>Above all, it is necessary to clarify the meanings of the terms nobility (nobilitas) and noble (nobilis) in the fourth century. Timothy D. Barnes stated that &quot;the nobilitas still formed a special group within the senatorial order&quot;: at the time, the nobles were strictly the senators who had reached the ordinary consulate, the mayor of the city, or the mayor of the praetorium, as well as their descendants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Barnes, 1974</xref>, pp. 445-446). There can be no doubt that Barnes was correct, but, as some scholars have indicated, the terms nobility and noble can be used in a broader sense. Ausonius, in his works, claimed an ancient nobility for his family, which was actually curial (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barnish, 1988</xref>, p. 122), while Prudentius, in his poem Crowns of Martyrdom, and Paulinus, in his Poema 21, equaled the adjective 'noble' to illustris, a position which could be achieved through a series of public positions (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Salzman, 2001</xref>, p. 360).</p>
				<p>The meaning with which Sulpicius used the term noble' in section 10.8 of the Vita is not clear. It is logical to consider that he used it in the restricted sense, since in this case, the portrait that he traces of Martinian monasticism in the tenth chapter of the Vita become much more attractive and moving to the aristocrats to whom he is writing (cf. infra for Sulpicius' audience). But he could well have referred to senators or even the curia. In the attempt to identify who were the disciples of St. Martin, in other words those who professed monasticism under his direction, and what was the social origin of each of them, I will leave open all possibilities.</p>
				<p>For the period after the foundation of Marmoutier, between 373 and 374, we have a single and vague report. Sulpicius retorts that a &quot;certain catechumen&quot; (quidam catechumenus) put himself under the direction of St. Martin in his monastery a few kilometers from Poitiers (which later became known as Ligugé), but shortly afterwards, without any transition, alludes to the 'brothers' who lamented the death of this catechumen (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 7). Fontaine suggests that St. Martin's originally hermetic project was soon transformed into a coenobitic one. Sulpicius does not narrate the origins and the development of the monastery because he was only interested in the miracle worked by St. Martin at that time, thus the abrupt mention of 'brothers' (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 613-616). At the same time, Sulpicius did not give any indication about the social origin of the catechumen and the 'brothers,' but if these had been nobles it would have been strange if he had not done this. Sulpicius sought to guarantee the authenticity of the miracles of his hero, indicating, whenever possible, the distinct social condition of his witnesses. We will return to this question later.</p>
				<p>In relation to St. Martin's disciples after his ordination in the Tours cathedral, between 371 and 372, there exist more precise reports:</p>
				<p>Anatolius, a &quot;certain young man&quot; (iuuenis quidam), put himself under the direction of Clarus in the hermitage that had been established near Marmoutier (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 23.2). Fontaine suggests, based on his name, that he was of Asiatic origin, probably a pilgrim or a missionary from a pneumatic sect. In addition, he indicated that his name was the same as many Asiatic slaves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 994-995). I think that Fontaine was right about the social origin of Anatolius. However, it is enough to flick through the first two volumes of the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Jones; Mardindale; Morris, 1971</xref>, pp. 59-62; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Martindale, 1980</xref>, pp. 83-86) to perceive that Anatolius was also the name of important people in the fourth and fifth centuries.</p>
				<p>The priest Arpagius, probably from Tours (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 213), is cited by Galo as a witness of one of St. Martin's miracles (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.3.1). Sulpicius gives no information about his social origin.</p>
				<p>Belgicus is mentioned by Gallus in Sulpicius' Dialogues due to his reaction to reading Letter 22 by Jerome (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 1.8.5). The attribution of the possessive adjective noster to his name suggests that he was a disciple of St. Martin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p. 133; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 335). There is no information about his social origin.</p>
				<p>Brice, a native of Tours (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 10.31), was ordained deacon and priest by St. Martin (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 2.1). When the latter died on 11 November 397, Brice was anointed his successor (Gregório, Historiarum libri decem 2.1 and 10.31). According to Sulpicius, he, who &quot;had never possessed previously anything of the clergy (he was actually raised in the monastery by St. Martin), raising horses and buying slaves. At that time, he was reprehended by many for having bought not only young barbarians, but also girls of beautiful appearance&quot; (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.15.2). The fact that he had not possessed anything before being ordained a cleric clearly indicates that he was not of an aristocratic origin. He could raise horses and buy slaves thanks to the wage he came to receive after his ordination.</p>
				<p>The deacon Cato, &quot;who was responsible for the administration of the monastery,&quot; was a skilled (doctus) fisherman (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.10.2). This skill, certainly acquired before starting his ecclesiastic career, indicated that he had exercised a manual activity and was thus not an aristocrat.</p>
				<p>Clarus, identified by Sulpicius as a &quot;young noble&quot; (adulescens nobilissimus), was ordained a priest while still young. Sulpicius admired him a lot and built a great friendship with him, to the point of burying him under the altar of the basilica he had constructed in Primuliaco.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20"><sup>6</sup></xref> Clarus, at an unspecified moment, constructed a hermitage (tabernaculum, monasterium) close to Marmoutier, and some monks joined him (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 23.1-2; Paulinus, Epp. 23.3 and 32.6). Clarus died a little before St. Martin, probably the same year (Sulpicius Severus, Ep. 2.5). Scholars attribute to Clarus a more distinct social origin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Babut, 1912</xref>, p. 241; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Stroheker, 1948</xref>, p. 161; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 989-992; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Heinzelmann, 1982</xref>, p. 584; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p. 73; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p. 31; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 479). Fontaine specifically suggests that nobilissimus has in this case a social and moral meaning. I agree with the moral meaning of the term, which appears evident in the phrase: &quot;in a short time he became distinguished for the most exalted faith, and for all sorts of excellence&quot; (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 23.1). However, as I have mentioned, the curia could also appropriate the term noble in the fourth century. Moreover, Sulpicius says that Clarus had abandoned 'everything' (omnia) to follow St. Martin, but there is a great difference between abandoning 'everything' and abandoning 'great wealth' (summae opes), as if St Martin was referring to the case of Paulinus. It is therefore much more probably that Clarus was from a curial family from Tours.</p>
				<p>Eusebius is the recipient of one of Sulpicius' letters which compose the appendix of the Vita (Ep. 1). In Letter 397, Eusebius appears as a priest, but in the Dialogues (1.9.5), from 404, he appears as a bishop. The fact is that he was a member of Martinian circle in Primuliaco and Sulpicius' decision to address an apologetic letter to him about the uirtus of St. Martin led Fontaine to suppose that he was a disciple of St. Martin, and more specifically &quot;un de ces ascètes distingués de Marmoutier, issus d'illustres familles et que 'nous avons vus ensuite évêques', comme le dit Sulpice à propos du recrutement du monastère&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 1122; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 699). I agree that Eusebius could have been a disciple of Martinho, but Sulpicius does not give any indication that he was an aristocrat, to the contrary of the case of Clarus. Considering the fact that a large part of the bishops of fourth century came from local aristocracies (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Brown, 2012</xref>, pp. 31-52), we can suppose that Eusebius was also of a curial origin. Nevertheless, the fact that Eusebius had been ordained a bishop does not automatically that he was curial. He could have reached the episcopate thanks to a period of education in Marmoutier. Brice, also ordained a bishop, was of a humble origin.</p>
				<p>Gallus was also very close to Sulpicius. Playing with his name, Gallus was opposed to the Aquitanians (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 1.27.2), and was consequently from the civil diocese of Galias. He was the nephew, on the part of his mother, of Evancius, possibly a bureaucrat or a palace employee, and therefore belonging to a rich family or one in social ascension.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21"><sup>7</sup></xref> Gallus declared that he had abandoned school to follow St. Martin (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.1.1), but it is not known if he was a student or teacher. Due to the high quality of his speeches, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, pp. 42-44) and (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, pp. 51-53) were in favor of the second option. In fact, Gallus is called scholasticus (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 1.9.3 and 1.27.5), a term which can be used in a pejorative manner, but which qualifies teachers of rhetoric or those trained in rhetoric schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alciati, 2009</xref>, p. 20). The Dialogues, however, did not transcribe Gallus' exact words. Sulpicius certainly corrected and adapted the discourse of all those who took part in sessions in defense of St. Martin who are part of the work.</p>
				<p>Heros is identified by Prosper of Aquitaine as a &quot;saintly man and disciple of the blessed Martin&quot; (Epitoma de Chronicon anno 412, 1247). He was ordained bishop of Arles in 408, at the moment when Constantine III established himself in the city. Being the protégé of a usurper, he lost his position after the city was taken by the magister militum Constante, in 411. In a letter (Ep. 2.4), Zosimus, bishop of Rome, states that the ordinations of Heros in Arles, and of Lazarus in Aix had been irregular and had been opposed by the plebeians and the clergy. In the same letter, Zosimus describes them as &quot;unknown, foreigners.&quot; Zosimus' accusations were obviously partial, since they reflect the version of the enemies of Heros and Lazarus. But the communities of Arles and Aix would not have been opposed to their ordinations and Zosimus not have referred to them as &quot;unknown, foreigners&quot; if they had come from a senatorial family. It is possible that since they were ordained bishops, they came from curial families. However, both only reached the episcopacy through the intermediation of Constantine III. Most probably, therefore, they were of a modest origin.</p>
				<p>Lazarus was ordained bishop of Aix in similar circumstances to Heros (Zósimo, Ep. 3.3). He is considered a disciple of Martin because of his proximity to Heros and for having raised &quot;in many councils,&quot; particularly in the council of Turin in 398, the accusations against Brice (Zosimus, Epp. 3.3 and 4.2). Similar to Heros, he is described as unknown and a foreigner by Zosimus, in such a way that he was probably of modest origin.</p>
				<p>Presbyter Refrigerius, who reached Primuliaco at the end of the first journey in the Dialogues, had followed Martin &quot;since his early youth.&quot; He was presented by Gallus as a witness of various stories told on the second journey (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.14.5, 3.1.3, 3.5.1, 3.7.5, 3.9.1-3). However, nothing is said about his social origin. Since he had been a priest it may be considered that he came from a curial family. However, as in the case of Eusebius, there are strong doubts.</p>
				<p>Sabbatius is named a disciple of Clarus (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 23.7), but Sulpicius does not give any other information about him. According to Luce (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri and Marc Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 1670), he is the same Sabbatius who reached Primuliaco at the beginning of the second journey in the Dialogues.</p>
				<p>Saturninus, present in the second journey in the Dialogues, was mentioned in a story told by Gallus as a witness of Martin's uirtus (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.3.6). He was probably a disciple of the bishop, since he accompanied Gallus and other Martinian monks on a pastoral visit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Fontaine, 2006</xref>, p. 300).</p>
				<p>Victor, possibly originally from Bordeaux (Paulinus Ep. 25*.1), was also a disciple of Martin and Clarus. After 399, he was responsible for carrying letters, books, and presents from Sulpicius to Paulinus and vice-versa (Paulinus, Epp. 23.2-10; 25.1; 25*.1; 26.1; 28.1-4; 29.6; 31.1; 32.5, 9-10 and 17; 33.1; 43.1- 3). Victor had been a soldier before following Martin (Paulino, Ep. 25*.1) and was thus not an aristocrat.</p>
				<p>Based on the close relations between Vitricius, Bishop of Rouen, and Martin, and the affinity of their natures, Camille Jullian raises the hypothesis that the former had been the disciple of the latter in Marmoutier (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Jullian, 1923</xref>, pp. 50-51).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn22"><sup>8</sup></xref> In fact, the similarities between their biographies are surprising: both were converted soldiers, bishops of large provincial cities in western Gaul, thaumaturges, evangelists in the countryside, and founders of churches and monasteries (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Fontaine, 1982</xref>, pp. 13-24). It is very probable that Martin had influenced Vitricius to some extent, but it is impossible to know if he had actually lived in Marmoutier before his ordination. In my opinion, if not Sulpicius, at least Paulinus would have given some indication of this.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn23"><sup>9</sup></xref> Anyway, Vitricius was not an aristocrat, since he had served as a soldier before being ordained.</p>
				<p>At the beginning of the second journey in the Dialogues (3.1.4-5), Sulpicius mentioned the arrival of a &quot;mob of monks,&quot; consisting of Presbyter Evagrius, who was accompanied by Aper,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn24"><sup>10</sup></xref> Sabbatius, and Agricola, Presbyter Aetherius, who was accompanied by Deacon Calupio and by Sub-Deacon Amator, and finally by Presbyter Aurelius. Sulpicius insisted on stating the ecclesiastic title of those who had one, but did not reveal anything about their social origins. Gallus' reference to Martin's wooden seat with the words &quot;which was known to everyone&quot; is an indication that they passed by Marmoutier (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, p. 138). Another indication resides in the fact that they had joined monastic discipline and clerical life, as Martin had also done. According to Sulpicius, they all came &quot;from very different regions.&quot; But their arrival on the morning of the day after Gallus had begun to narrate the uirtutes of Martin, and in two groups, each led by a presbyter (Aurelius was the only one to arrive alone), shows that actually they could not have come long or &quot;from very different regions.&quot; It is assumed that they installed themselves in Primuliaco after Martin's death due to Brice's persecution of the Martinians (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 370). Some of them are mentioned at other moments. Evagrius is cited by Gallus as a witness of one of Martin's miracles (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.2.8). Aper dispersed the &quot;many mundane persons&quot; who were at the door, expecting to be accepted in the auditorium, because he thought that they were only stimulated by curiosity, not religious zeal (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.1.6 and 3.5.7). Sulpicius resorted to the Ciceronian formula dulcissimus meus to show this great affection for Presbyter Aurelius. When the latter was still a deacon, Sulpicius had dedicated a second letter to him in the appendix of the Vita, in which it appears that he frequented Primuliaco (Ep. 2.1, 7 and 18). It may be thought that Aurelius was of aristocratic origin due to his closeness to Sulpicius and his priesthood. Evagrius and Aetherius are identified as priests (presbyters). However, as in the cases of Eusebius and Refrigerius, there are strong doubts about this. It is strange to consider that Sulpicius, who sought to highlight their ecclesiastic titles, had not wanted to indicate their aristocratic origins, as he did in the case of Clarus.</p>
				<p>Other disciples of Martin lived around Tours as hermits. One report tells of a former soldier who wanted to remove his wife from a monastery of women, where she had been put by Martin, so that he could live with him in his cell (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.1.11).</p>
				<p>Martin, therefore, also encouraged female monasticism. It is known that he, probably in Tours, consecrated the daughter of Arborius, nephew of noone less that Ausonius, to perpetual virginity (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 19.1-2). René Metz estimates that, &quot;Après la cérémonie, Arborius a, sans aucun doute, ramené sa fille à la maison; elle vécut son idéal de vierge consacrée dans le milieu familial, selon la pratique courante à l'époque&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Metz, 1961</xref>, p. 124). Fontaine, to the contrary, raised the hypothesis that she had remained in the women's monastery. He argues that her personal oblation to Martin goes back to an Egyptian custom of offering oblates to celebrated hermits or cenobites for them to receive a spiritual education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 882). Sulpicius, however, does not give any indication that Arborius' daughter had remained in Tours. Moreover, female monastic practices in Gaul in the second half of the fourth century and the religious customs of Egypt were part of different worlds, so that Fontaine's assertion is not sustained. In fact, due to the elevated social condition of the daughter of Arborius and, as indicated by Metz, the custom of the time, it is much more probable that she had returned to her parents' house to live out her ideal of virginity in the company of her family.</p>
				<p>Some monks and virgins from the Tours community are mentioned anonymously (Sulpicius Severus, Epp. 2.6 and 3.18-19; Dialogi 2.2.2, 2.5.4, 3.14.6 and 8). Gallus also testifies that virgins from &quot;distant regions&quot; frequently came to Tours to visit Martin (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.12.11), but does not indicate who they were or if they were under the direction of the bishop.</p>
				<p>In Martin's diocese, a virgin retired to a small property (agellum, uillula), hiding herself from the view of all men (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.12.1-2). She certainly owned the property on which she lived, but she was not in any way related to Martinian monasticism. When he went to visit her for pastoral motives, she refused to see him.</p>
				<p>In relation to a conversation in an unnamed village (uicus), Sulpicius writers: &quot;The name of Christ, thanks to his miracles and his example, gained such force that there was nowhere that was not full of well attended churches and monasteries. Since where he destroyed temples, he immediately built churches or monasteries&quot; (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 13.9).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn25"><sup>11</sup></xref> Due to the</p>
				<p>supposed enthusiasm of peasants to convert and the foundation of monasteries in the location, it is logical to think that these monasteries were peopled by locals. Martin founded other monasteries in his campaigns to convert the countryside, perhaps in the same manner, in other words, on top of destroyed pagan temples. The monks are only mentioned anonymously. The presence in Tours of monks from an unknown diocese is only alluded to (Sulpicius Severus, Ep. 1.13). In Clion-sur-Indre a &quot;multitude of consecrated virgins and saints&quot; was encountered (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.8.5-9). Amboise was inhabited by the presbyter Marcellus and his &quot;brothers,&quot; criticized by Sulpicius for his incapacity to destroy a pagan sanctuary (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.8.4-6).</p>
				<p>Other supposed disciples of Martin appeared in the works of Gregory of Tours. In his Liber in gloria confessorum (22), Gregory, basing himself on a Vita composed in verses which did not come down to us, identified Maximus as a &quot;disciple of our Martin.&quot; Maximus, seeking isolation, established himself initially in a monastery on Barbara island in Lyon. However, after becoming known, he decided to return to his place of origin, Chinon, a castrum in the territory of Tours, and founded a monastery there. In the same Book (45), Gregory stated that Presbyter Romano, according to a Vita which was also lost, was buried close to Blaye by Martin. For this reason, Prinz considered him a disciple of the bishop (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p. 24). Gregory also speaks of Martin, who was abbot of a monastery in Saintes, but demonstrated some caution in identifying him as a disciple of the Bishop of Tours: &quot;Martin ... as they say, a disciple of our Martin&quot; (Gregory, Liber in gloria confessorum 56). In his Ten Books of History (7.10), Gregory mentions another Martin, who was buried in Brivesla- Gaillarde. Gregory also demonstrates a certain caution in regard to him: &quot;Martin, as they say, a disciple of our Martin.&quot; These reports transmitted by Gregory are not supported by any contemporary source, so they are not very reliable. Even in the cases of Maximus and Romano, we are unable to judge the reliability of the Vitae which Gregory consulted to write about them. These Vitae could have been written many years after the death of their protagonists and have been based on not very trustworthy traditions.</p>
				<p>According to a Vita written around 620 by Bishop Magnobodo, which is based on a previous Vita (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii, Praefatio), now lost, Maurilius, originally from Milan, abandoned his mother and his goods to follow Martin. Maurilius, who could read, was ordained sub-deacon, deacon, and a priest by Martin (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1). However, desiring to isolate himself, Maurilius retired to Angers, where he built a church over a destroyed pagan sanctuary (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1-2) and a monastery on a hill close to the same church (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 6). In 423, he was ordained bishop of Angers. Also according to Magnobodo, Maurilius was of noble origin (Magnobodo, Vita Maurilii 1: de genere nobile ueniens; natalibus claris fuerat oriundus). This Vita, however, is not very reliable: some plausible chronological arguments are mixed with unlikely elements and numerous legendary episodes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Pietri; Heijmans, 2013</xref>, p. 1286; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Prinz, 1988</xref>, p. 23). Moreover, the attribution of noble origin to a saint was in the seventh century a hagiographical topos. No matter how much his association with Martin was chronologically possible - Maurilius died on 13 September 453 and according to Magnobodo, was in his nineties (Vita Maurilii 28) -, we cannot accept his noble origin without another corroborating source.</p>
				<p>Finally, the supposed coincidences of Marmoutier with the description of the druidic traditions of Pomponius Mela - in relation to the living traditions, the recruitment, and the religious formation conferred by a master - led (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 673-674) to question:</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>Pourquoi, dans l'ordre des mobiles les plus secrets, d'antiques traditions celtiques n'auraient-elles pas eu au moins autant de poids, dans de grandes familles encore partiellement christianisées, dont certains membres pouvaient encore assumer des sacerdoces gaulois (comme en témoigne Ausone à propos du Bajocasse Patera devenu rhéteur à Bordeaux), que les traditions de la 'matière d'Égypte' et le style de vie de l'ascétisme monastique?</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Although Fontaine's hypothesis is suggestive, we have no evidence which relates the recruitment of the monks of Marmoutier with druidic traditions. All of Martin's disciples who we have identified above have names of Latin or Greek origin. It is a simple coincidence.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>THE RELIABILITY OF VITA MARTINI 10.8</title>
				<p>This attempt to identify the disciples of Martin and their social origins offers little information to reach definitive conclusions. We have reports (in some cases only the name) of 22 people who could have been trained in Marmoutier,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn26"><sup>12</sup></xref> but Sulpicius testifies that almost eighty monks lived there (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.5).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn27"><sup>13</sup></xref> Nevertheless, there exists sufficient data to draw up some hypotheses. Only Clarus and Gallus appear as probable members of curial families and can be considered nobles. It could be argued that Bishop Eusebius and the presbyters Arpagius, Aurelius, Aetherius, Evagrius, and Refrigerius, due to their ecclesiastical positions, also came from curial families, but there exist serious objections. In first place, Sulpicius did not give the slightest indication of their social origins, to the contrary of the case of Clarus, even though he insisted on emphasizing their ecclesiastical titles. In second place, as in the case of Brice, they could have been ordained priests because of the education they received in Marmoutier. Seven disciples are certainly of modest origin: Anatolius, Brice, Catan, Heros Lázarus, Victor, and an anonymous hermit. We do not have information about the social origins of the others.</p>
				<p>This list and Martin's impression about the example of Paulinus - that he &quot;was almost the only one of his time to fulfill the evangelical precepts&quot; (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 25.4) - are fully in agreement. In relation to this passage, Fontaine questions if Martin, by chance, did not want to save &quot;les autres membres de l'aristocratie gallo-romaine&quot; who lived in Marmoutier, referring to the example of Paulinus as almost unique. He proposes two hypotheses to explain the words of the Bishops of Tours. The first is that the noble monks of Marmoutier may not have given up all their goods, since family conditions had to be different: other members of their families would have continued to live in the world and enjoy the family's assets. The second is that Paulinus, having established himself in Nola, had voluntarily abandoned his patria, something which the monks of Marmoutier had not done, even when coming from provinces to the south of Gaul (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 1059).</p>
				<p>However, the sources do not corroborate Fontaine's hypotheses. For some of the priests of the desert, exile was one of the most important duties of monks (cf. Apophthegmata Patrum, Andreas). However, in the West, there were no echoes of this need to expatriate oneself. Moreover, Nola was not a strange place for Paulinus. He had deposited the first beard he had cut in the sanctuary of St. Felix and between 380 and 381 had been governor of Campania, a period in which a road was built which linked Nola to the same sanctuary (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Trout, 1999</xref>, pp. 47-48). We can suppose, with greater probability, that Martin had cited the example of Paulinus because he knew of his friendship with Sulpicius. Calling attention to someone so close to his interlocutor, the bishop made his advice become much more illustrative and touching. However, the passage has certainly much more sense if we admit that in Marmoutier there were no aristocrats of the caliber of Paulinus. Martin, like Augustine (Epp. 27 and 31), and Ambrosius (Ep. 58.1), was very impressed, exactly because, as the list of his disciples confirms, there were never any reports of the conversion to monasticism of a rich senator.</p>
				<p>A passage from the Dialogues (3.14.5-6) corroborates this conclusion:</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>[The former vicar Lycontius] offered a hundred pounds of silver, which the blessed man neither rejected nor accepted; but before the amount of money touched the threshold of the monastery, he had, without hesitation, destined it for the redemption of captives. And when it was suggested to him by the brethren, that some portion of it should be reserved for the expenses of the monastery, since it was difficult for all of them to obtain necessary food, while many of them were sorely in need of clothing, he replied, &quot;Let the church both feed and clothe us, as long as we do not appear to have provided, in any way, for our own wants.&quot;</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>A phrase from the Vita (10.6), &quot;all things were shared in common,&quot; suggests that the monks of Marmoutier had contributed with part of their goods to the common property of the monastery. Nevertheless, this passage from the Dialogues, by leaving it clear that these goods were not sufficient to guarantee the maintenance of the monastery, indicates that there no monks were found with comparable fortunes to the rich senators. Otherwise, I do not understand how the monks could have reached such penury (they lacked fundamental products for subsistence), even during a period of economic restrictions. Nevertheless, some objections can be made. The first is that, like Clarus, the monks who possessed goods could have abandoned everything by converting, in such a way that they no longer had any revenue. The second is that many nobles mentioned in the Vita may not have resided in Marmoutier since the beginning, since Sulpicius' description in the tenth chapter of Vida reflects the situation of the monastery in the 390, around 20 years after its foundation.</p>
				<p>While, on the one hand, only two disciples of Martin convincingly appear as aristocrats, Sulpicius, on the other hand, sought to highlight the contacts of his hero with important aristocrats and the imperial court. In relation to this, Sulpicius writes that Martin &quot;gave orders not only to counts and prefects, but also to kings themselves&quot; (Dialogi 1.24.4). On the list of important relations of the Bishop of Tours, we can find people from the administration: Arborius, &quot;a former prefect&quot; (uir praefectorius) (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 19.1-2; Dialogi 3.10.6),<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn28"><sup>14</sup></xref> the most important person who Martin knew; Avitianus, a &quot;count&quot; (comes) (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.4.1, 3.5.1, 3.8.1-3), and his wife (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.3.1-4); Auspicius, &quot;former prefect&quot; (praefectorius uir), and his son, Romulus (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.7); Evancius (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.2.3-7), uncle of Gallus; Lycontius, &quot;a former vicar&quot; (ex uicariis) (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.14.3-5); Tetradius, &quot;a former proconsul&quot; (uir proconsularis) (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 17.1-4); and Vicente, a &quot;prefect&quot; (praefectus) (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 1.25.6). We can also add to the lust the names of Meropius Pontius Paulinus (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 19.3 and 25.4; Dialogi 1.23.4 and 3.17.3; Paulinus, Ep. 18.9; cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Pietri; Pietri, 2000</xref>, pp. 1630-1654) and Sulpicius Severus (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 25.1-3; Ep. 2.6; Dialogi 2.4.1, 2.12.1, 2.13.3-4, and 2.13.8). Among the emperors, Martin visited Maximus and his wife, who supposedly venerated him a lot (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 20; Dialogi 2.6, 3.11; Chronica 2.50.2), and Valentinian I (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 2.5). In court Martin met people with an elevated social position (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 20.4-7), even defending the cause of some of them (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.11.8).</p>
				<p>Had Martin also established direct relations with his aristocratic admirers, devotees of asceticism, who we can find in the writings of Sulpicius? We know the names of Bassula, mother-in-law of Sulpicius (Sulpicius Severus, Ep. 3.1-5); Dagridus, &quot;a former tribune&quot; (ex tribunis) (Sulpicius Severus, Dialogi 3.5.1); Desiderius, to which Sulpicius dedicates the Vita; Euquerius, &quot;a former vicar&quot; (ex uicariis), and Celsus, &quot;a former consul&quot; (consularis), who arrived at Primuliaco in the second journey of the Dialogues to hear Gallus' stories (Dialogi 3.1.7); and Postumianus, one of the interlocutors of the Dialogues, a friend of Sulpicius (Dialogi 1.1.1, 1.5.6, 1.9.6). Moreover, three patres familias are mentioned anonymously (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 16 and 17.5-7; Dialogi 3.2.3-8).</p>
				<p>Fontaine supposes that Martin's important contacts confirm Sulpicius' assertion in section 10.8 of the Vita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Fontaine, 1993</xref>, p. 27). However, nothing corroborates his assumption. Most of those mentioned above maintained their secular careers. Even those who converted to monasticism - in this case Paulinus and Sulpicius - did not abandon their refined lifestyle to transfer to Marmoutier. Actually, rich aristocrats like him lived their monastic ideals in their uillae amongst relatives and friends. The only conclusion which Martin's list of important contacts allows us make is that many aristocrats felt touched by him.</p>
				<p>Sulpicius wrote his Martinian works for monks and sympathizers of monasticism, for lettered aristocrats, many of whom were not disposed to convert to Christianity in order not to abandon classical literature, and against the bishops of Gaul, hostile to Martin's military past and monasticism, and skeptical about his miracles and his capacity to interpret the Scriptures (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, pp. 72-84; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, pp. 72-80; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Ghizzoni, 1983</xref>, p. 121). By highlighting the contacts of his hero with important aristocrats and emperors, Sulpicius' objectives were to show that he was not only an apostle of the poor and the peasants and to guarantee the authenticity of his miracles. At the same time Sulpicius visited Marmoutier various times (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Delehaye, 1920</xref>, pp. 34-36; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 29 and 1050; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Stancliffe, 1983</xref>, p. 71 and 318), in such a way that he had the opportunity to get to know all the monks living there. While we do not have information about the social origin of most of Martin`s disciples, it is because Sulpicius has nothing to say about this. Stating that many nobles lived in Marmoutier, surrounded by manuscripts (cf. Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.6) and promoted to episcopal seats, but who had voluntarily abandoned wealth and comfort, choosing a life of humility and mortifications (cf. Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.8-9), was a way of defending and at the same time promoting Martinian monasticism among his erudite readers.</p>
				<p>Moreover, Sulpicius wanted, with the detailed description of Marmoutier in the tenth chapter of the Vita, to criticize the supposed mundane clergy of Gaul, as Fontaine aptly points out (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">1967-1969</xref>, p. 689):</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>Point par point, on y relève des griefs qui s'opposent à la vie parfaite menée à Marmoutier sous la direction de Martin: modestie de l'habitat, du vêtement, de la nourriture et de la boisson, dénuement, solitude, vie contemplative. Tout était là-bas l'envers de la richesse, de l'orgueil et de la mondanité. Ainsi, les exigences de l'apologétique ne sont pas moindres dans la stylisation de ce chapitre, qui pouvait d'abord apparaître comme une pure contemplation de l'idéal ascétique réalisé à Marmoutier selon le coeur de Sulpice.</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>In this criticism, the presence of many nobles was used to increase the amount of renunciation of the material world by Martinian disciples: they were aristocrats who, like Clarus, had abandoned everything, not poor people who had nothing to abandon. It is curious that Fontaine, who analyzed so well the literary strategies of Sulpicius in the Vita, accepted so literally the assertion that many aristocrats lived in Marmoutier.</p>
				<p>The only fact that can confirm Sulpicius' assertions is that many monks wore camel skin (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.8), one of the most precious reminders which a devote pilgrim of monasticism could bring from Egypt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fontaine, 1967-1969</xref>, p. 681). If the Martinian monks had travelled on pilgrimage to Egypt, we can conclude that they were from an elevated social condition. However, it appears that camels were raised in Gaul in Late Antiquity and their skins provided low cost clothes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">de Vogüé, 1988</xref>, p. 87; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">de Vogüé, 1997</xref>, p. 50). Sulpicius sent a skin to Paulinus around 400 (Paulinus, Ep. 29.1). Nevertheless, camel skins were perfectly suited to Sulpicius' criticism of the supposed mundane clergy of Gaul. Thus, the indication that the Martinian monks wore them could ultimately be fallacious.</p>
				<p>Finally, I have the impression that Sulpicius himself was not particularly convinced of the presence of 'many nobles' in Marmoutier. His words, &quot;many among them were considered [habebantur] nobles&quot; (emphasis added), may indicate a certain reservation on his part, but the information was too useful to the portrait he wanted to trace of Marmoutier and Martinian monasticism to be discarded. He could have heard this information from the monks of Marmoutier themselves,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn29"><sup>15</sup></xref> but he found no confirmation.</p>
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				<title>FINAL CONSIDERATIONS</title>
				<p>There are no clear indications that can corroborate Sulpicius' claim that &quot;many nobles&quot; lived in Marmoutier (Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.8). Of all the disciples of Martin that we could identify, only two, Clarus and Gallus, appeared as aristocrats and could be considered noble. However, both were, most probably, of a curial origin and their possession could not be compared to those of the important senators. Since the lack of sources prevents us from drawing definitive conclusions, I suggest that the presence of nobles in Marmoutier should be considered with great caution.</p>
				<p>Conclusions such as Fontaine's - that the Martinian monks did not practice manual labor because of the prejudices of the aristocracy and that Marmoutier was materially maintained with the revenues from the properties of its richest members -, based almost exclusively on section 10.8 in Vita, are not sustainable. Equally problematic is the generalization of these conclusions to all monastic experiences in fourth century Gaul. Sulpicius had very clear motives to state that Marmoutier was full of nobles. On the one hand, he wanted to defend and promote Martinian monasticism among his erudite readers and, on the other, to increase the level of the renunciation of the material world among Martinian monks to criticize the supposed mundane clergy of Gaul.</p>
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					<p>This research was carried out with the support of the Foundation for the Support of the State of São Paulo (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo - Fapesp).</p>
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