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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rbh</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista Brasileira de História</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. Bras. Hist.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1806-9347</issn>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0102-0188</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Associação Nacional de História - ANPUH</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00007</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1806-93472016v36n72_007</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigos</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>O crime da miscigenação: a mistura de raças no Brasil escravista e a ameaça à pureza racial nos Estados Unidos pós-abolição</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>The crime of miscegenation: racial mixing in slaveholding Brazil and the threat to racial purity in post-abolition United States</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Luciana da Cruz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">New York City University (Graduate Center, CUNY). New York, NY, USA. lucianacruzbrito@gmail.com 1</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">New York City University</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">New York</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">NY</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="US">USA</country>
					<email>lucianacruzbrito@gmail.com</email>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn51">
					<label>1</label>
					<p>Pós-Doutora, CUNY. Bolsista Andrew W. Mellow. Doutora em História Social (USP), Mestra em História (Unicamp), graduação em História (UFBA).</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub">
				<month>08</month>
				<year>2016</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>36</volume>
			<issue>72</issue>
			<fpage>107</fpage>
			<lpage>130</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>18</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMO</title>
				<p>Este artigo discute como o exemplo brasileiro foi debatido e apropriado por políticos, cientistas e demais membros da elite branca estadunidense, que no pós-abolição estava elaborando um projeto de nação que mantinha antigas ideologias escravistas de supremacia branca e segregação racial que perduraram no país ao longo do século XX. Na América Latina era possível avaliar os efeitos negativos da mistura racial, e o Brasil tornou-se um exemplo de atraso e degeneração, reforçando a necessidade de políticas segregacionistas urgentes a serem implementadas nos Estados Unidos. A questão da mistura racial estava atrelada à produção de uma noção de identidade nacional que se sustentava nas ideias de pureza de sangue e em oposição às sociedades latino-americanas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>Summary:</title>
				<p>This article discuss how the Brazilian example was debated and appropriated by politicians, scientists, and other members of the white US elite, who in the post-abolition period were preparing a nation project which maintained the old slaveholding ideologies of white supremacy and racial segregation, lasting in the country until the twentieth century. In Latin America it was possible to assess the negative effects of racial mixing, while Brazil became an example of backwardness and degeneration, reinforcing the need for urgent segregationist policies in the United States. The question of racial mixing was linked to the production of a notion of national identity which was sustained by the idea of purity of blood and in opposition to Latin American societies.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>mistura racial</kwd>
				<kwd>identidade nacional</kwd>
				<kwd>Estados Unidos da América</kwd>
				<kwd>Brasil</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>racial mixing</kwd>
				<kwd>national identity</kwd>
				<kwd>United States of America</kwd>
				<kwd>Brazil</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="46"/>
				<page-count count="24"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>No ano de 1864, ainda durante a Guerra Civil, o jornal sulista <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>The Charleston Mercury</italic></xref>, um periódico da cidade de Charleston, grande centro escravista dos Estados Unidos, publicou uma matéria que abordava o maior dos pesadelos da sociedade norte-americana no pós-abolição: a mistura racial, recém-batizada com o nome de miscigenação. A matéria intitulada &quot;Miscigenação no Norte&quot; havia sido originalmente publicada no jornal ianque <italic>The New York Times</italic>, de ampla circulação na região norte do país, com o título de &quot;A que ponto nós estamos chegando&quot;. O autor do texto chamava a atenção para um fenômeno descrito como &quot;anormal e detestável&quot; que estava se tornando comum nas ruas de Nova York, agora tomada por rostos de tez cada vez mais &quot;amarronzada&quot;.</p>
		<p>A matéria alertava os cidadãos do país para os riscos de uma prática supostamente comum entre os abolicionistas radicais, que era o hábito de apoiarem e influenciarem o casamento inter-racial, ameaçando assim um país &quot;grandioso e próspero&quot; como os Estados Unidos. Ainda de acordo com as previsões pessimistas do autor, por causa dessa prática, os brancos do país deixariam de existir porque em breve, todas as famílias brancas teriam um genro negro, o que faria todos os norte-americanos aos poucos se tornarem mulatos, afetados pela &quot;raça infeliz&quot;. &quot;Adeus, um longo adeus à nossa brancura&quot;, lamentava o autor, acreditando que algo deveria ser feito para &quot;preservar a pureza&quot; de sangue.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>2</sup></xref>
		</p>
		<p>O tema da mistura racial sempre foi crucial nos debates sobre nação, escravidão e identidade nacional nos Estados Unidos. No período em que o artigo citado foi escrito, durante a Guerra Civil, a mistura racial era tida na região sul como uma das consequências mais nefastas da abolição. Afinal, desde a Revolução Americana, em 1776, os Estados Unidos foram pensados por suas elites como um país formado por homens brancos, descendentes de europeus, e que guardariam para seu grupo os privilégios da cidadania e do pertencimento nacional. Negros, assim como indígenas, não estariam incluídos na ideia de nação branca inventada pelas elites do país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fields, 1982</xref>). Portanto, a mistura racial, ao longo dos anos, constituía-se como uma ameaça a essa ideia, desestabilizando noções raciais fixas, mas que por vezes permitiam lugares sociais intermediários.</p>
		<p>Em geral, a sociedade branca norte-americana das regiões norte e sul condenava a mistura racial. Na década de 1840 a Escola Americana de Etnologia, movimento de cientistas do norte e do sul do país que se dedicavam a explicar e justificar as diferenças raciais, ofereceu diversos argumentos que favoreceriam não só a defesa do cativeiro, mas também a criação de políticas sustentadas na noção de <italic>white supremacy</italic>. O líder desse movimento científico, o médico Samuel Morton, utilizou o método de medição de crânios para criar uma hierarquia dos povos no mundo, mas sobretudo nos Estados Unidos. Associando peso da massa craniana e capacidades intelectuais, Morton concluiu que os negros ocupavam a base da escala de evolução humana, enquanto os caucasianos representavam o topo, a vanguarda da civilização (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Stanton, 1960</xref>).</p>
		<p>Na região sul, onde ser negro necessariamente significava ser escravo, a cor da pele era um importante marcador do <italic>status</italic> de homens e mulheres da região. Portanto, a mistura racial criava um dilema no sul escravista: qual seria o lugar de homens e mulheres que, de tão claros, passariam por brancos? Até o início do século XIX, senhores de escravos acreditavam que a &quot;infusão de sangue branco&quot; produziria escravos física e intelectualmente melhores do que aqueles que eram &quot;puros descendentes de africanos&quot;. Porém, com o passar dos anos e com o crescimento do número de indivíduos considerados mulatos, além do aumento do número de pessoas que aparentemente eram brancas mas viviam em cativeiro, a mistura racial passou a constituir uma séria ameaça ao sistema escravista na região sul (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Tenzer, 1997</xref>, p.7-9).</p>
		<p>A solução para essa questão partiu de outro membro da Escola Americana de Etnologia, o médico sulista Josiah Nott. Desde a década de 1840 ele já vinha defendendo a importância de proibir o intercurso de negros e brancos nos Estados Unidos. Nott afirmava que a mistura racial, na época chamada de <italic>amalgamação</italic>, produzia um indivíduo inferior, degenerado e perigoso. Isso porque o chamado mulato não aceitaria sua condição de escravo, ameaçando assim a tranquilidade da sociedade branca. Nott era poligenista, assim como todos os membros da Escola Americana, e defendia que negros e brancos eram de espécies distintas. Por esse motivo, a mistura racial causaria também a degeneração dos brancos, que segundo ele faziam parte de uma raça superior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p.4; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Brito, 2014</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>3</sup></xref>
		</p>
		<p>Josiah Nott compartilhava essas ideias com Louis Agassiz, cientista suíço estabelecido nos Estados Unidos desde 1846. Embora fosse contrário à escravidão, Agassiz concordava com Nott a respeito dos efeitos da mistura racial. Afirmava que essa prática produzia um indivíduo degenerado e propunha que os afro-americanos libertos fossem removidos para longe dos estados do norte dos Estados Unidos. Mais tarde, ele passou a propor que a população negra livre fosse enviada para o Brasil como forma de evitar que a mistura racial fosse praticada de forma desenfreada em seu país. Agassiz empreendeu uma missão científica no Brasil, que já vinha sendo utilizado como observatório de raças puras e mestiças. O momento escolhido para realizar tal empreitada não foi acidental: o ano de 1863, durante a Guerra Civil, quando a questão central era a disputa pela continuação ou pelo fim da escravidão no sul dos Estados Unidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Machado; Huber, 2010</xref>, p.30-33).</p>
		<p>Portanto, quando o jornal sulista <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>Charleston Mercury</italic></xref> republicou uma matéria do jornal da região adversária, o <italic>The New York Times</italic>, refletiu esta ideia comum que conciliava elites sulistas e nortistas: a rejeição à mistura racial. Antes da guerra, os escravistas do sul acusavam os abolicionistas do norte de, entre outras coisas, defender o fim da escravidão para que casamentos entre negros e brancos fossem permitidos. Na matéria do <italic>The New York Times</italic>, podemos encontrar a &quot;denúncia&quot; de que os abolicionistas brancos estavam dispostos a se casar com negros para provar sua crença na igualdade racial. Nessa perspectiva, a combinação mais temida nas uniões entre negros e brancos era aquela na qual a mulher branca se casava com um homem negro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p.84-97).</p>
		<p>Notícias sobre filhas de abolicionistas brancos que se casavam com negros no norte eram muito comuns na imprensa sulista. Um exemplo foi o casamento de Sarah Judson, cuja história foi publicada no jornal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><italic>Memphis Daily Appeal</italic></xref> em 1859 e que, segundo o autor, &quot;era de revirar o estômago de qualquer branco&quot;. A noiva, filha de um &quot;abolicionista radical&quot;, foi induzida pelo pai a se casar com um homem negro &quot;contrariando os desígnios da natureza&quot;.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>4</sup></xref>
		</p>
		<p>De acordo com a historiadora Martha Hodes, foi durante e após a Guerra Civil que as relações sexo-afetivas entre negros e brancos passaram a ser menos toleradas nos Estados Unidos, sobretudo nas relações em que a mulher pertencia à &quot;raça branca&quot;. Com o aproximar-se da Guerra, quando a escravidão estava mais ameaçada, os filhos de mães brancas e pais negros desestabilizavam ainda mais o sistema escravista, uma vez que que a condição da mãe definia o <italic>status</italic> da prole. Esse não era o caso das relações entre homens brancos e mulheres negras, muitas vezes resultado da violência sexual e/ou coerção, que retroalimentavam o sistema escravista, uma vez que a mulher negra produzia indivíduos escravizados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hodes, 1997</xref>).</p>
		<p>A década de 1860 foi um período de ansiedade em torno do tema da mistura racial, sobretudo após o decreto da abolição da escravidão nos estados do sul e a reeleição de Lincoln, o que ocorreu entre 1863 e 1864. Esses fatos influenciaram os debates sobre as políticas futuras a respeito do <italic>status</italic> dos libertos no norte e no sul dos Estados Unidos. Esses debates também buscavam justificar argumentos mobilizando as teses científicas produzidas pela Escola Americana de Etnologia na década de 1850. Várias questões foram levantadas no pós-abolição: os libertos seriam inseridos na sociedade com os mesmos direitos que os brancos? A abolição seria seguida de um projeto de igualdade racial? A abolição significaria o fim do racismo? Como garantir que os libertos continuassem trabalhando, inclusive para seus ex-senhores? Como garantir a supremacia dos brancos? Ao mesmo tempo em que tais questões foram colocadas por escravistas e até mesmo por abolicionistas moderados, a comunidade negra do país mostrava-se esperançosa com o futuro. Os libertos do norte apostavam na igualdade de direitos, sobretudo no direito ao voto e no fim dos espaços segregados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Holt, 2010</xref>).</p>
		<p>Durante a campanha eleitoral de 1863, os democratas (defensores da escravidão) tentaram associar a prática da miscigenação à imagem do presidente Lincoln, que era candidato à reeleição pelo partido republicano. Quando Lincoln decretou o fim da escravidão nos estados do sul em 1863, a lei foi ignorada pelos senhores de escravos daquela região. Isso bastou para que o presidente fosse acusado de liderar uma &quot;cruzada&quot; a favor dos negros e de ser um apoiador do casamento entre negros e brancos. Lincoln havia afirmado, anos antes, que não acreditava na igualdade racial, e via a ideia de casamento inter-racial como naturalmente repugnante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kaplan, 1949</xref>).</p>
		<p>Foi assim que naquele ano os democratas lançaram mão de uma estratégia que tinha por objetivo vincular de vez a imagem do presidente Lincoln à prática de amalgamação. No calor da campanha eleitoral, dois jornalistas democratas, David Goodman Croly e George Wakeman, lançaram um panfleto chamado &quot;Miscigenação: a teoria da mistura de raças aplicada ao homem branco americano e o negro&quot;. O folheto era falso, e a intenção dos autores, então anônimos, era deixar a impressão de ter sido escrito por republicanos abolicionistas radicais, apoiadores de Lincoln e dos casamentos inter-raciais. O texto teve grande repercussão na região norte, onde estava a maioria dos eleitores do presidente, mexendo com a opinião pública aterrorizada com as ideias defendidas pelo panfleto, que promovia a mistura racial como algo praticado entre as nações mais avançadas do mundo. O texto também apontava o mestiço como o povo do futuro, uma visão pouco comum nos Estados Unidos, afirmando que as raças mestiças eram superiores e assim contrariando a justificativa central da superioridade branca: a pureza racial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p.116; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, p.171-174).</p>
		<p>O panfleto criou o termo <italic>miscigenação</italic>, que dali por diante seria empregado para designar a mistura entre pessoas de raças diferentes. Além disso, a publicação também atraiu a atenção da opinião pública porque abordava diretamente o tema dos casamentos entre pessoas negras e brancas, assunto que causava reações no norte dos Estados Unidos sempre que a abolição era debatida. Nos anos 1860 a mistura racial já era completamente condenada na região sul, porque naquele momento tratava do possível envolvimento de negros libertos e brancos pobres, o que contrariava regras raciais impostas durante a escravidão. Na região norte, de forma análoga, a miscigenação racial também era condenada, e o panfleto também gerou reações negativas, até mesmo alguns abolicionistas acreditaram que o texto era um manifesto pró-miscigenação. Mesmo falso, o panfleto &quot;Miscigenação...&quot; ganhava veracidade porque utilizava uma linguagem científica. Além disso, para exemplificar os supostos benefícios da mistura racial os autores fizeram amplo uso de representações da América Latina. Esta era uma forma de fazer os leitores estadunidenses visualizarem também o seu país como uma sociedade &quot;mestiça&quot;.</p>
		<p>Percebemos o uso da América Latina no capítulo &quot;Superioridade das raças mistas&quot;. Os autores afirmavam que as raças mestiças eram mental, física e moralmente superiores àquelas raças puras ou que não se haviam misturado, e traziam o exemplo dos <italic>sambos</italic> da América do Sul, descendentes de índios e negros. Mais uma vez, o Brasil não poderia deixar de ser citado como exemplo de país onde o povo era miscigenado, colaborando para a consolidação da ideia da mestiçagem neste país.</p>
		<disp-quote>
			<p>Os cafuzos no Brasil, uma mistura de indígenas e negros, são mencionados pelos viajantes como um tipo esguio e musculoso, e com um cabelo excessivamente longo que é meio encaracolado especialmente nas pontas e cresce perpendicularmente da testa até a altura de um pé ou um pé e meio. Isso forma uma cabeleira muito bonita, que é um resultado da mistura do cabelo carapinho do negro com o cabelo pesado e longo do índio.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4"><sup>5</sup></xref>
			</p>
		</disp-quote>
		<p>Ainda que sob pretensões falsas, o panfleto divulgava a imagem do brasileiro como um tipo perfeito, o belo resultado da mistura racial vigente naquela sociedade. Essa imagem positiva do dito mulato nutria as fantasias, ou melhor, os temores da sociedade estadunidense que via o Brasil, assim como outros países latino-americanos, como um antiexemplo do seu projeto de nação. Essa representação do tipo brasileiro também cumpria outro papel no movimento abolicionista negro. Os abolicionistas afro-americanos viam no povo brasileiro miscigenado uma referência na sua luta por integração e igualdade racial. Para eles, mistura racial significava ausência de preconceito, o que fazia do Império um exemplo importante quando precisavam convencer seus compatriotas tanto da possibilidade de convívio entre negros e brancos de maneira igualitária quanto das potencialidades de negros e mestiços (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Brito, 2014</xref>).</p>
		<p>Nortistas e sulistas, a despeito da rivalidade provocada pela Guerra Civil, concordavam em que os libertos não poderiam viver em condição de igualdade em relação à população branca. A ideia de mistura racial causava verdadeira repugnância entre os nortistas e era tida como algo contrário às leis naturais, o que fez o tema do casamento inter-racial tomar uma proporção importante na eleição de 1864. Ainda naquele ano, uma série de caricaturas foram feitas para ilustrar a miscigenação como resultado da eleição do presidente. Charges foram amplamente divulgadas na imprensa antiabolicionista após a vitória eleitoral de Abraham Lincoln, que seria responsabilizado pelos seus opositores por promover a mistura de raças nos Estados Unidos após ter abolido a escravidão (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p.115-116).</p>
		<p>Uma dessas caricaturas teve como tema um baile, o <italic>Baile da Miscigenação</italic>, que acontecia na sede da campanha eleitoral de Lincoln (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). A festa representava uma completa inversão da ordem: brancos e negros, agora libertos, celebravam juntos sem obedecer às regras de decoro racial. As mulheres negras, com características animalizadas e formas voluptuosas, seduziam homens brancos que eram atraídos pelos seus instintos sexuais. Aliás, a representação das mulheres negras era a própria descrição do que a ciência dizia sobre elas: corporeidade excessiva e sexualidade desenfreada. A charge buscava representar a quebra de controle dos corpos femininos negros e os excessos causados pela abolição.</p>
		<p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<label>Figura 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title><italic>The Miscegenation Ball</italic> - 1864.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-36-72-00107-gf1.tif"/>
				<attrib>Fonte: Library of Congress: Prints and Photograph Division.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>6</sup></xref>
				</attrib>
			</fig>
		</p>
		<p>No fundo da imagem podemos ver a imensa foto do presidente Lincoln e uma faixa que ironizava a pauta de igualdade racial do movimento abolicionista: &quot;Liberdade Universal, uma Constituição, um destino&quot;. Na parte superior da tela, no telhado do salão, observadores brancos assistiam à cena e, como não participavam dela, certamente o faziam com olhares de reprovação. Assim, setores contrários à abolição, representados pelo partido democrata, exploravam os temores da sociedade norte-americana sobre a mistura racial.</p>
		<p>A caricatura tinha o nítido objetivo político de associar a mistura racial ao partido republicano, do então presidente candidato à reeleição. Uma legenda da parte inferior explicava o evento, que teria acontecido &quot;na sede da campanha eleitoral de Lincoln&quot;. Ainda segundo a legenda, uma vez concluídas as atividades formais, o salão foi liberado para um <italic>negro ball</italic>, um baile negro. A legenda ainda explicava que muitos membros do partido se ausentaram antes que o baile começasse, mas no entanto, os que estavam no salão eram todos filiados ao partido republicano que, na legenda, era referido como &quot;partido republicano negro&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>7</sup></xref>
		</p>
		<p>Também no ano de 1864, o panfleto &quot;O que é a miscigenação e o que esperar agora que o Sr. Lincoln foi reeleito&quot; fazia uma representação semelhante do que ocorreria nos Estados Unidos após a abolição e a vitória do presidente. A capa do panfleto materializava a pior das consequências da mistura racial: o fato de que as mulheres brancas, guardiãs da pureza racial, fossem violadas por homens negros. Para isso, a imagem do homem é destituída de características humanas e carrega traços exagerados nos lábios, olhos e nariz, forma como dali por diante pessoas negras seriam representadas na mídia norte-americana (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
		<p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figura 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Capa do panfleto &quot;What amalgamation is and what we are to expect now that Mr. Lincoln is re-elected&quot;, 1864.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-36-72-00107-gf2.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</p>
		<p>A década de 1860 foi um momento de especulações sobre como manter o antigo ideal de nação estadunidense, branca e masculina, diante da real possibilidade da abolição e da nova condição dos afro-americanos, que se reivindicavam como parte dos cidadãos do país. De acordo com Barbara Fields, as elites nacionais dos Estados Unidos, desde o século XVIII, já haviam definido uma ideia de nação para o país que estava relacionada ao lugar racial e de gênero dos indivíduos, que era o homem branco descendente de europeu como representante desse grupo homogêneo que formava a nação. Portanto, essa &quot;comunidade imaginada&quot;, de acordo com o termo criado por Benedict Anderson, excluía o negro e o indígena da ideia do estadunidense &quot;típico&quot; criado pelas suas elites. A pureza racial fazia parte dessa criação e constituía o principal contraponto em relação aos outros estados nacionais nos trópicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fields, 1982</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Anderson, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Painter, 2010</xref>).</p>
		<p>O que significaria então para as elites estadunidenses que os Estados Unidos se tornassem um país de mulatos, onde os brancos &quot;em breve deixariam de existir&quot; segundo as previsões pessimistas do jornal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>The Charleston Mercury</italic></xref> e do <italic>New York Times</italic>? Qual o sentido das publicações da charge &quot;The miscegenation ball&quot; e do panfleto &quot;What miscegenation is&quot;? De que maneira a miscigenação era incompatível com o projeto de &quot;país grandioso e próspero&quot;? Como a mistura racial ia na contramão do ideal de nação existente entre as elites norte-americanas, mesmo depois da abolição?</p>
		<sec>
			<title>O CRIME DA MISCIGENAÇÃO NO BRASIL</title>
			<p>Em 1860, foi novamente o jornal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><italic>De Bows Review</italic></xref>, que tinha ampla circulação entre as classes escravistas da região sul, que se encarregou de prover a sociedade com um exemplo do que poderia acontecer com um país próspero e de grande potencial caso não existissem leis que impusessem barreiras ao convívio entre negros e brancos.</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Infelizmente a Constituição do Brasil considera todos os homens iguais se eles são livres, sejam eles homens negros ou homens brancos. Os efeitos da igualdade destas leis não precisam de demonstração. Isso tem mergulhado o Brasil numa revolução política que vem destruindo o governo Imperial e seu exército, que é composto na sua maioria por negros que irão em breve ditar os termos da emancipação à nação e o Império será convertido em uma outra Venezuela.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7"><sup>8</sup></xref>
				</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Segundo J.R.H., autor do artigo, o Brasil era um país cheio de riquezas naturais, porém o crescimento do que ele chamava de &quot;raça híbrida&quot; condenava o país ao fracasso. Isso porque os tais híbridos brasileiros tinham o privilégio de ser cidadãos, o que lhes franqueava uma possibilidade de ascensão social irrestrita, chegando até mesmo à possibilidade de &quot;liderarem o governo&quot;. Ainda na opinião do autor, o brasileiro era uma raça tão misturada que não poderia progredir, uma ideia que fazia referência direta às teses da Escola Americana de Etnologia sobre os efeitos degenerativos da mistura racial. Ainda segundo o autor, a falta de moral dos nativos e a ausência de políticas locais que regulassem o convívio entre negros e brancos no Brasil eram culpa do abolicionismo inglês, que havia transformado o Brasil &quot;na sua própria Jamaica&quot;, ou seja, numa colônia. Por fim, o autor fazia uma advertência sobre os perigos do movimento abolicionista: &quot;as condições atuais do Brasil podem nos alertar para os perigos de que nós escapamos, em meio ao fanatismo que nos tem atormentado&quot;.</p>
			<p>A historiadora Barbara Weinstein nos ajuda a compreender essa leitura sulista e escravista sobre a sociedade escravista brasileira a partir dos diferentes ideais de nação que foram sendo elaborados nos dois países ao longo do século XIX. Segundo essa historiadora, o Império brasileiro não produziu uma ideia de nação que estivesse atrelada ao cativeiro, tornando a defesa da escravidão mais fragilizada por ser considerada um &quot;mal necessário&quot; mesmo entre seus defensores. Esse reconhecimento da escravidão como um mal deixava senhores de escravos brasileiros cientes de que a escravidão era algo temporário e que não teria lugar num Brasil moderno e republicano. O grande número de libertos, a abertura para a compra de alforrias e as brechas criadas pela cidadania também faziam do Império uma sociedade complexa, onde não necessariamente ser negro significada ser escravo, a despeito do estigma da escravidão que acompanhava a população africana e afro-brasileira.</p>
			<p>Já no sul dos Estados Unidos, a escravidão sempre foi pensada como uma instituição que definia a sociedade sulista. Políticos, cientistas e intelectuais elaboraram um complexo argumento que fazia do cativeiro algo que estava atrelado à própria identidade sulista, sobretudo durante e após a Guerra Civil. As teorias de <italic>white supremacy</italic> e pureza de sangue seriam fundamentadas pelo cristianismo, pela ciência, nas leis e na economia sulista, de maneira que mesmo no pós-abolição o sul continuou a ser identificado como uma região saudosa da escravidão, mantendo normas de segregação racial que se estenderam até o século XX. Enquanto no Brasil a partir de determinado momento a escravidão passou a ser um problema moral, nos estados do sul dos Estados Unidos o cativeiro era tido como um sistema de trabalho e de organização social que garantia o sucesso econômico e a superioridade da região frente ao norte do país e outras nações escravistas. Entre os estados sulistas, ser negro significava ser escravo, e ao passo que a Guerra Civil se aproximava, novas regras foram dificultando a compra da liberdade. No sul norte-americano, mesmo após a abolição, foram implementadas outras práticas baseadas na diferenciação racial para manter a comunidade negra em um lugar de subalternidade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Weinstein, 2006</xref>).</p>
			<p>O Brasil, assim como outros países latino-americanos, continuou a ser citado por muito tempo como um laboratório dos piores efeitos da miscigenação, constituindo-se num observatório de sociedades sem um projeto de <italic>white man nation</italic>. Nesse sentido, México, Cuba, Brasil e a já citada Venezuela eram exemplos dignos de observação e, ao mesmo tempo, de repugnância.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8"><sup>9</sup></xref> A necessidade de políticas de segregação racial no pós-guerra nos Estados Unidos intensificou o debate sobre os efeitos da mistura racial e políticas que visavam evitar essa prática, uma vez que a abolição não resolvera o &quot;problema racial&quot; no país.</p>
			<p>Em 1866, em artigo chamado &quot;The Negro in America&quot;, um autor não identificado tomava postura ainda mais radical ao afirmar que os caucasianos que invadiram e ocuparam a África haviam &quot;cometido suicídio e se autodestruído ao se amalgamarem com as raças inferiores ou pior, com as piores espécies do continente&quot;. Segundo o autor, os europeus na América espanhola tinham cometido o mesmo erro.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9"><sup>10</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Porém, havia quem pensasse de forma diferente sobre os efeitos da mistura racial, que para alguns era uma saída positiva para o problema que se instalaria no país no pós-abolição. Mesmo que essa perspectiva tivesse sucumbido a um outro projeto de nação que se consolidaria ao longo das décadas de 1870 e 1880, isso nos mostra que durante certo período a defesa da segregação racial não era um consenso. Desde 1861, havia quem defendesse que a mistura racial iria trazer benefícios aos Estados Unidos. No artigo &quot;The colored creole&quot;, um autor não identificado apresentava para a sociedade norte-americana os resultados positivos da mistura racial nas colônias britânicas pós-abolição e até mesmo no Brasil escravista. De acordo com o autor, a mistura racial seria responsável por diminuir o preconceito entre os brancos.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10"><sup>11</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>O artigo informava que havia 13 milhões de africanos e seus descendentes nas Américas, que estavam distribuídos em países como Brasil - onde estavam mais de 4 milhões -, seguido de Cuba e Porto Rico, América Central, Haiti, colônias francesas e britânicas, além do México. Metade dos 9 milhões de negros que estavam nas Américas, exceto nos Estados Unidos, eram de origem birracial, e em países como Brasil, Guatemala, Grenada, Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica e, até mesmo, no Haiti, a ausência de preconceito racial possibilitava que a população negra participasse completamente da sociedade (ibidem).</p>
			<p>Para o autor de &quot;The colored creole&quot;, não haveria outra alternativa para os brancos dos Estados Unidos senão aceitar pacificamente a participação dos mestiços na sociedade, inclusive na condição de cidadãos. Ainda segundo ele, na América Latina e no Caribe, os mestiços haviam demonstrado ser capazes de atingir um alto desempenho intelectual e terem habilidades para o trabalho livre. Contrariando a tese da degeneração dos mulatos, o autor afirmava que os indivíduos de origem birracial também poderiam servir como uma classe intermediária que arrefeceria possíveis tensões raciais, como havia ocorrido no Haiti.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11"><sup>12</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Em 1864, o abolicionista branco Theodore Tildon também se pronunciou publicamente a favor da miscigenação. Para ele, a mistura racial seria a melhor solução para o futuro dos Estados Unidos pós-abolição, pois ele via a miscigenação como um estágio intermediário para o branqueamento, ao passo que a sociedade se tornaria menos preconceituosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, p.172-173).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12"><sup>13</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Mesmo sendo uma opinião pouco comum, uma ideia positiva da mistura racial tinha alguns adeptos no pós-abolição que insistiam em apontar outros países como nações beneficiadas pelos seus efeitos. O artigo &quot;The mixed human race&quot;, por exemplo, fazia um apanhado desses benefícios na Martinica, em St. Domingo (Haiti) e no Brasil, dentre outros países onde &quot;os mulatos são compatíveis com os brancos de forma favorável em vários aspectos&quot;. Seguindo as teorias de Tildon e do francês M. De Quatrefages, a província de São Paulo no Brasil era um lugar onde a mistura entre portugueses e índios aimorés, guaianazes e carijós havia produzido uma raça híbrida superior, algo impensável para os cientistas poligenistas. O artigo ainda afirmava que a mistura racial tornava os mulatos mais bem adaptados ao clima local do que aqueles indivíduos considerados &quot;puros&quot;.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13"><sup>14</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>O exemplo do Brasil, onde os aspectos positivos da amalgamação eram reconhecidos, fazia alguns indivíduos acreditarem que, de forma análoga, a integração dos negros à sociedade por meio da mistura racial acabaria com o preconceito racial vigente nos Estados Unidos. No artigo &quot;Emancipation in Brazil&quot;, o autor afirmava que o <italic>melting pot</italic> brasileiro, ou seja, a mistura de raças, fazia do país latino-americano um bom exemplo que naturalmente levaria o Império ao fim da escravidão. O autor anônimo afirmava que mesmo assim a sociedade brasileira era reconhecidamente estratificada: no topo da elite nacional estavam os brancos, descendentes de europeus (portugueses, franceses, alemães); depois vinham os brasileiros brancos; e por último estavam os mulatos de todas as cores descendentes de brancos e índios, de africanos e índios, negros livres e índios &quot;incivilizados&quot; e &quot;domesticados&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, p.131).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14"><sup>15</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Após a Guerra Civil, nos Estados Unidos, o chamado &quot;mulato&quot; ameaçava o progresso e a civilização, porque degenerava a sociedade e criava categorias sociorraciais que desestabilizavam a ordem social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Rogers, 2010</xref>, p.280-281; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Machado; Huber, 2010</xref>, p.30-36). Por esse motivo, o Brasil se consolidaria como o laboratório das raças onde os norte-americanos poderiam constatar os resultados físicos, políticos e morais da mistura racial praticada de forma desenfreada. As fotografias produzidas pela equipe do cientista Louis Agassiz entre 1865 e 1866 retratavam homens e mulheres africanos &quot;puros&quot; e aqueles classificados como de &quot;raças impuras&quot; ou &quot;mistas&quot;. As imagens eram uma ilustração do que a população dos Estados Unidos poderia se tornar sem políticas de segregação racial.</p>
			<p>Em 1868, o jornal <italic>New York Observer and Chronicle</italic> divulgou algumas notícias sobre o Brasil trazidas por Agassiz.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15"><sup>16</sup></xref> Ele afirmava que a amalgamação era mais praticada que em qualquer outro lugar do mundo, causando a deterioração do país e produzindo um <italic>mongrel non-descript type</italic>,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16"><sup>17</sup></xref> que era deficiente física e mentalmente. Agassiz também dizia que, embora o país ainda fosse escravista, a ausência de barreiras raciais fazia os libertos brasileiros terem mais liberdade que os recém-libertos dos Estados Unidos pós-abolição.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17"><sup>18</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Os efeitos da mistura racial no Brasil, de acordo com Agassiz, também foram tema do artigo chamado &quot;Effects of the admixture of races&quot;, publicado no <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><italic>Medical News</italic></xref> em 1870, onde foram reproduzidos alguns trechos da obra do cientista em que ele descrevia as características da população brasileira, atribuindo diferentes terminologias para cada combinação racial. Sobre o cafuzo, a mistura do índio com o negro, ele dizia que não possuía nada da &quot;delicadeza dos mulatos&quot;, e era descrito como &quot;de pele escura, cabelo longo, ondulado e encaracolado&quot;. Em relação ao caráter, Agassiz os definia como &quot;portadores de uma feliz combinação entre a disposição alegre do negro e a bravura enérgica dos índios&quot;.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18"><sup>19</sup></xref> Já o mameluco era descrito como a mistura do índio com o branco, resultando em um ser &quot;pálido, afeminado, preguiçoso, débil...&quot;. Após afirmar que os indígenas comprometiam as qualidades positivas do outro ancestral do mestiço em qualquer combinação, fosse com o branco ou com o negro, o artigo terminava reafirmando a necessidade da manutenção das desigualdades, justificadas pelas próprias limitações dos negros e mestiços.</p>
			<p>Desde o período anterior à Guerra Civil, antes de os Estados Unidos adotarem um rígido código de segregação racial que classificaria a população de forma binária, o tema do lugar social e legal das pessoas de ancestralidade mista foi extremamente debatido. Foi na década de 1850, quando havia uma quantidade considerável de escravos de pele clara, que os chamados mulatos também foram perdendo seu <italic>status</italic> intermediário e sendo cada vez mais &quot;aproximados&quot; da categoria de negros. No caso daqueles que podiam ser confundidos com brancos, a possibilidade de <italic>passing</italic>, facilitada pela imprecisão em se identificar alguém como negro ou branco, revelava as falhas e brechas do sistema racial sulista. Segundo Lawrence Tenzer, essa &quot;escravidão branca&quot; enfraqueceu a escravidão racializada do sul e se constituiu em uma das causas da Guerra Civil no país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Tenzer, 1997</xref>).</p>
			<p>De acordo com Williamson, até a década de 1850, os mulatos livres tentavam se aproximar do mundo dos brancos, o que era possível em regiões do extremo sul, sobretudo aquelas mais próximas do Caribe. Entre as décadas de 1850 e 1860, o número de mulatos cresceu consideravelmente, inclusive aqueles que eram escravizados. Em uma década, o número de escravos mulatos cresceu de 66,9% para 72,3%. Em 1860, 94,2% dos mulatos que viviam no sul haviam sido escravizados, e uma onda de intolerância se acentuou na população branca em relação àqueles que eram livres. Ou seja, mais uma vez, o problema não era com a mistura racial em si, mas com aquela que produzia um indivíduo livre ou que tentava se passar por branco. À medida que a população escravizada foi se tornando mais clara e a escravidão mais ameaçada, a regra do <italic>one drop</italic>, uma gota de sangue negro, foi se tornando cada vez mais aplicada para definir racialmente a população (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p.61-73).</p>
			<p>Para mostrar que a condição dos indivíduos de <italic>mixing race</italic> era bastante complexa nos Estados Unidos, um autor anônimo que se identificava como mestiço escreveu um artigo para expressar a sua opinião sobre a condição social desse grupo, que ele chamava de &quot;classe infeliz&quot;.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19"><sup>20</sup></xref> Segundo <italic>Amalgamated Man</italic>, forma como se autoidentificava, as pessoas como ele tinham a sua condição social agravada pelo fato de serem vítimas de preconceito por parte das pessoas de &quot;sangue puro&quot;, negras e brancas. Embora, segundo ele, as pessoas de origem birracial não nutrissem preconceito contra ninguém, ele comentava o lugar marginal dos &quot;mulatos&quot; na sociedade estadunidense. A comunidade branca não os aceitava porque os considerava seres inferiores em todos os sentidos, e a comunidade negra não os aceitava porque os considerava egoístas, uma característica que acreditavam ter sido herdada do seu ancestral branco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p.102).</p>
			<p>O autor questionava os dados que apontavam a existência de uma pequena quantidade de mestiços nos Estados Unidos. Segundo ele, essa ideia estava relacionada às teorias científicas que afirmavam a curta longevidade desses indivíduos. Ele afirmava que os <italic>mixed bloods</italic>, em 1860, eram 1/4 da população &quot;de cor&quot;, ao invés do número oficial do censo, que era de 1/9. Segundo ele, eram números comprometidos com &quot;os interesses da escravidão&quot;. Além disso, <italic>Amalgamated Man</italic> afirmava que muitos indivíduos que eram de pele escura também eram de origem birracial e eram registrados como <italic>colored</italic>. Ao mesmo tempo, outros indivíduos registrados como brancos eram, na verdade, mestiços.</p>
			<p>O poeta e jornalista canadense John Reade deu sua contribuição sobre o assunto no artigo &quot;The intermingling of races&quot;, onde afirmava que a mistura racial já acontecia nos Estados Unidos, no norte e no sul, e apresentava resultados positivos no sentido de formar uma nação civilizada e uniforme.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20"><sup>21</sup></xref> Segundo ele, os homens brancos estavam se relacionando com mulheres de etnia Cherokee e Choctaw, que &quot;por sua beleza e inteligência poderiam ser comparadas a qualquer senhora do sul&quot;. Além de a &quot;fusão de sangues distintos&quot; ser apontada como o caminho para a civilização, o jornalista também afirmava que a mistura racial apaziguaria conflitos e preconceitos, o que já estava acontecendo entre índios e brancos nos territórios indígenas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">McClintock, 1995</xref>, p.1-14; 23-24).</p>
			<p>O autor também apresentava dados que informavam que no México e na América do Sul os <italic>mixed blood</italic> compunham 1/5 da população, e somente 20% era composta por europeus e 3/4 por indígenas.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21"><sup>22</sup></xref> Seguindo essa tendência, em países como Guatemala, Honduras, Nicarágua, San Salvador e Costa Rica, a maioria da população era indígena e mestiça. Na América do Sul, afirmava ele, as <italic>mixed races</italic> eram a parte mais numerosa da população e, até mesmo no Brasil, parte significativa dos escravizados e libertos era um &quot;mix&quot; de crioulos e índios. Aliás, Reade afirmava que os portugueses eram constantes &quot;amalgamadores&quot; que se misturavam com todas as populações que conquistavam, como era o caso do próprio Brasil.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn22"><sup>23</sup></xref>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>DECIFRANDO O <italic>MELTING</italic> POT BRASILEIRO</title>
			<p>O pós-abolição nos Estados Unidos foi um período marcado por projetos de nação completamente distintos. Durante o período conhecido como Reconstrução, entre os anos de 1863 e 1877, enquanto a comunidade negra aspirava a plena participação na vida social e política do país, velhos valores racistas subsistiam entre a comunidade branca, que insistia em manter as antigas hierarquias raciais. A partir de 1867, a Reconstrução visava garantir o emprego do trabalho livre na região sul, a reincorporação dos Estados Confederados à União, além do direito ao voto da população negra e da concessão de cidadania aos afro-americanos, o que aconteceu somente com a 14a Emenda, em 1868. As políticas implementadas durante a Reconstrução mudaram drasticamente a dinâmica da vida no sul, já que a partir de então, homens e mulheres negros poderiam de alguma forma impor suas condições de trabalho, por exemplo, recusando-se a trabalhar para seus ex-senhores. Outros mantinham esses vínculos, mas, a partir de então, recebiam salários (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Foner, 1990</xref>, p.34-35).</p>
			<p>Essa autonomia foi vista como uma inversão da ordem social, insubordinação e quebra das regras paternalistas que garantiam que a população branca interferisse e determinasse as escolhas pessoais da população negra. Com isso, a elite política do sul se viu destituída de poder, o que gerou entre eles um sentimento ainda mais resistente à abolição, provocando diversos atos de violência que tinham como alvo homens e mulheres negros. Os ex-senhores de escravos começaram a entender que, sem a escravidão, que orientava as relações de trabalho e sociais, eles sofreriam uma drástica perda da soberania que os distinguia do resto da população. Portanto, as políticas segregacionistas e a valorização da noção de supremacia branca foram reafirmadas no sul nos anos finais da Reconstrução, que segundo o historiador Thomas Holt, também marcou um momento de reconciliação entre as regiões sul e norte. Isso significou, além da restrição dos direitos dos libertos, a reafirmação dos Estados Unidos como uma sociedade cuja identidade nacional se sustentava na hegemonia das populações brancas do país (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Holt, 2010</xref>, p.158-172).</p>
			<p>Nesse período em que os Estados Unidos se reafirmavam como uma nação que repudiava a mistura racial, o Brasil continuou a ser visto como uma nação que se organizava sem a existência de leis de segregação racial. Além disso, o Brasil continuou um exemplo importante para se perceber os efeitos da miscigenação entre a população.</p>
			<p>O escritor Frank Carpenter contou a história de uma família americana no Rio de Janeiro, no romance <italic>Round about Rio</italic>, em que os viajantes narravam suas experiências no Brasil além das suas impressões sobre negros e mulatos locais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Carpenter, 1884</xref>). Em 1881, ele publicou essas impressões no artigo &quot;Race in Brazil&quot;, no qual tentava entender as razões da ausência de preconceito no Brasil e como a mistura racial, vista como uma prática natural no país, orientava diversos aspectos da vida do brasileiro.</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>No seu desejo de autodesenvolvimento, o Brasil tem avançado através de passos exaustivos com um crescimento forçado e destruidor. O país tem trazido um grande número de imigrantes de todas as nações para o seu litoral, e entre eles, evidentemente, os homens têm predominado. Esses homens têm que ter esposas, e desde que o país não tem mulheres brancas o suficiente para atender à demanda, têm sido obrigados a aceitar mulheres descendentes de negros e de indígenas. Em consequência, os três sangues estão se misturando fortemente em todos os níveis da sociedade brasileira, e uma linha de cor é produzida de forma indistinta. Como ao nascer da manhã, é difícil dizer onde a escuridão termina e onde a luz começa. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>O escritor dizia perceber que, como nos Estados Unidos, a presença da população negra também era considerada um mal para o Brasil. Mesmo afirmando que o preconceito racial era um sentimento injusto e antirrepublicano fortemente enraizado na sociedade estadunidense, Carpenter não acreditava que negros e brancos deveriam ocupar o mesmo lugar na sociedade ou que fossem iguais. Para ele, a razão da ausência de preconceito racial no Brasil era a miscigenação, que arrefecia os ânimos, mas que ao mesmo tempo degenerava a população. Ainda assim, ele afirmava que as hierarquias raciais eram respeitadas pelo menos no Exército, onde havia uma intensa diversidade racial. Segundo ele, &quot;desde que os negros são inquestionavelmente uma raça inferior&quot;, os brancos eram aqueles que ocupavam o alto escalão das Forças Armadas no Império (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>).</p>
			<p>Frank Carpenter também usou a arte para interpretar a realidade racial brasileira. Em uma noite, sob o cenário tropical da capital do Império, ele ouviu a música da ópera <italic>Aída</italic>. Isso o fez imaginar que, possivelmente, o piano poderia estar sendo tocado por um pianista mulato. O escritor disse que tal ambiente o fez refletir sobre as razões do sucesso de tal ópera no Brasil, levando-o a concluir que estavam no romance inter-racial entre &quot;a princesa etíope de pele escura e seu amante egípcio do norte&quot;, o general branco Radamés.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn23"><sup>24</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Com a mesma temática, um amor inter-racial, a ópera brasileira <italic>O Guarani</italic> também era, na opinião de Frank Carpenter, uma representação do sentimento nacional sobre a mistura racial: &quot;uma heroína portuguesa de olhos azuis e cabelo dourado e o herói, um indígena de sangue puro&quot;. A naturalidade com que a sociedade brasileira aceitava relações entre pessoas de &quot;raças distintas&quot; era, para o escritor, a razão da ausência de conflitos raciais no país, ao passo que também a mesma razão impedia o progresso da sociedade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>).</p>
			<p>Outra história publicada num jornal sulista após o período da Reconstrução também revela esse momento de reforço das ideias e supremacia branca e antimiscigenação racial. O jornal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><italic>The State</italic></xref>, da Carolina do Sul, publicou em 1892 o artigo <italic>A creole beauty</italic>, que contava a história de Elizabeth Farnese, uma jovem que chegou a Nova Orleans vinda de Santiago de Cuba na condição de criada de uma família sulista. Elizabeth foi descrita no artigo como uma mulher de cerca de 18 anos, dotada de &quot;olhos encantadores e cabelos brilhantes&quot;. O segredo de Elizabeth era revelado quando o autor descrevia a cor da sua pele: &quot;a moça tinha a quantidade suficiente de sangue negro nas suas veias para dar uma [leve] cor escura a sua pele ricamente macia&quot;. Elizabeth afirmava ser <italic>creole</italic>, termo que nos Estados Unidos era empregado para alguém nativo das Índias Ocidentais ou da América do Sul e que tivesse ancestralidade europeia. O mesmo termo também era utilizado para designar &quot;qualquer pessoa nascida próxima aos trópicos&quot;.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn24"><sup>25</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Personagens como Elizabeth Farnese foram correntes na ficção do sul dos Estados Unidos pós-abolição, onde se imaginava que europeus de origem latina (portugueses, espanhóis) tinham a pele escura, ou bronzeada, diferente dos anglo-saxões. Para isso, o homem ou mulher que estava praticando <italic>passing</italic>, passando-se por branco<italic>,</italic> deveria adotar um sobrenome latino.</p>
			<p>Segundo Williamson, até a Guerra Civil, existia no sul alguma tolerância em relação a indivíduos de pele escura, mas que eram de origem latina. Porém, sobretudo depois da guerra, ao passo que a obsessão com a pureza racial aumentava na região, aqueles indivíduos que até então desfrutavam de um lugar intermediário passaram a ser aproximados à categoria de negros. Além disso, leis que proibiam o casamento inter-racial foram implementadas nesse período. No estado da Louisiana, por exemplo, casamentos entre negros e brancos eram proibidos até o ano de 1967 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p.91-97).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn26"><sup>25</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Elizabeth afirmava ser filha de um rico plantador de café no Brasil que havia caído em bancarrota. A origem burguesa explicava seus bons modos e seu inglês falado com um &quot;leve sotaque estrangeiro&quot;. Vivendo na sociedade sulista, sendo aceita nos círculos sociais brancos, transitando entre os jovens como &quot;uma igual&quot;, ela conseguiu atrair a atenção de um rico rapaz inglês que a pediu em casamento. O conto de fadas de Elizabeth começou a desmoronar à medida que a sua verdadeira identidade começou a ser investigada pela &quot;ambiciosa&quot; mãe do noivo, que desconfiou da sua cor de pele duvidosamente bronzeada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p.103).</p>
			<p>Por fim, descobriu-se que na verdade Elizabeth era filha de &quot;um humilde casal de mulatos que por anos havia cuidado de uma igreja em Santiago&quot;, em Cuba. A boa educação e os modos sofisticados de Elizabeth eram justificados pela educação em um convento, fruto da compaixão dos fiéis da igreja, compadecidos pela pobreza da &quot;família de cor&quot;. Descobertas as origens de Elizabeth, a preservação da pureza racial da família do seu então futuro noivo fez o casamento ser cancelado e o escândalo abafado com o pagamento de uma soma de dinheiro que comprou o silêncio de Elizabeth.</p>
			<p>Verídica ou não, essa história tinha uma importante mensagem: somente nos trópicos pessoas com a origem racial de Elizabeth tinham possibilidades de ascensão social. Exemplo disso é que um dos seus filhos se tornou &quot;um rico oficial do governo e influente cidadão da República do Brasil&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hiraldo, 2003</xref>, p.51-61).</p>
			<p>A história de <italic>passing</italic> de Elizabeth Farnese revela muito da política racial dos Estados Unidos no final do século XIX e também do imaginário das elites sulistas sobre a dinâmica racial da América Latina. Essa história era uma advertência às famílias do sul para que garantissem a pureza da sua linhagem tomando cuidado com os homens e mulheres que participavam dos seus círculos sociais se passando por brancos. Além disso, exemplos de categorias raciais como <italic>creole</italic>, <italic>spanish</italic>, <italic>mulatto</italic> e <italic>latin</italic> revelam uma enorme imprecisão racial que poderia ser mobilizada por pessoas como Elizabeth, que buscavam fugir de duras políticas segregacionistas impostas pelo sistema racial binário estadunidense.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS</title>
			<p>Durante todo o período pós-abolição as elites estadunidenses reafirmaram velhas ideias de diferença racial implementando um duro sistema de segregação que se alongaria pelo século XX. Mais do que isso, os Estados Unidos se afirmariam como país onde a regra do <italic>one drop</italic> orientaria as relações raciais enquanto os países latino-americanos se tornariam seu oposto. Dessa forma, construiriam uma ideia de nação a partir daquilo que os fazia diferentes dos &quot;outros&quot;, miscigenados e degenerados. O Brasil, como grande nação escravista, teve papel fundamental nesse processo de criação da &quot;nação americana&quot;. Isso porque, depois da Guerra Civil, quando os temores de que a proximidade entre negros e brancos resultasse em uma &quot;latinização&quot; da população, a defesa da pureza racial foi reforçada com base na manutenção de antigas teorias que condenavam a miscigenação.</p>
			<p>O tema da mistura racial foi central na construção da identidade e ideia de nação estadunidense. Primeiro, porque as elites nacionais reforçavam a tese da excepcionalidade do país em relação a outras sociedades americanas, então consideradas degeneradas pela miscigenação. Para isso, um amplo aparato científico, político e religioso fez a defesa dessas ideias durante todo o período escravista. Durante a Reconstrução, mesmo que outras perspectivas sobre os efeitos da mistura racial fossem anunciadas no sentido de essa prática ser um possível caminho para a homogeneização da população e solução para as tensões raciais do país, esse projeto acabou sendo derrotado pela ideia de pureza racial defendida pelas elites nacionais.</p>
			<p>Dessa forma, quando a partir da década de 1880 os Estados Unidos reforçavam políticas segregacionistas como forma de proteger seu projeto original de nação para homens brancos, nações latino-americanas, incluindo o Brasil, adotavam outros projetos nacionais de homogeneização da população, o que ocorreria por meio da mistura racial como forma de fazer desaparecerem as populações negras e indígenas. Essas diferentes perspectivas sobre os usos e efeitos da miscigenação foram amplamente discutidas na imprensa estadunidense no final do século XIX como forma de divulgar e defender a importância da pureza racial para conservar o ideal original de nação, construído durante o período escravista mas que deveria ser mantido mesmo numa sociedade livre. Ao mesmo tempo que produziam um ideal sobre si mesmos, também produziam uma imagem sobre seu outro que era negro, tropical, miscigenado e, também, degenerado.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<ref-list>
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				<mixed-citation>Miscegenation: the theory of the blending of races applied to the American white man and negro. New York: H. Dexter and Hamilton, 1864. Disponível em: <comment content-type="cited">Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/details/miscegenationthe00crol">https://archive.org/details/miscegenationthe00crol</ext-link>
					</comment>; Último acesso em: 14 jun. 2016.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<source>Miscegenation: the theory of the blending of races applied to the American white man and negro</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>H. Dexter and Hamilton</publisher-name>
					<year>1864</year>
					<comment content-type="cited">Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/details/miscegenationthe00crol">https://archive.org/details/miscegenationthe00crol</ext-link>
					</comment>
					<date-in-citation content-type="access-date" iso-8601-date="2016-06-14">Último acesso em: 14 jun. 2016</date-in-citation>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B46">
				<mixed-citation>What miscegenation is!: and what we are to expect now that Mr. Lincoln is re-elected. L. Seaman. Disponível em: <comment content-type="cited">Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/details/whatmiscegenatio00seam">https://archive.org/details/whatmiscegenatio00seam</ext-link>
					</comment>; Último acesso em: 14 jun. 2016.</mixed-citation>
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					<source>What miscegenation is!: and what we are to expect now that Mr. Lincoln is re-elected</source>
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						<name>
							<surname>Seaman</surname>
							<given-names>L.</given-names>
						</name>
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					<comment content-type="cited">Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/details/whatmiscegenatio00seam">https://archive.org/details/whatmiscegenatio00seam</ext-link>
					</comment>
					<date-in-citation content-type="access-date" iso-8601-date="2016-06-14">Último acesso em: 14 jun. 2016</date-in-citation>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>Miscegenation at the North. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">The Charleston Mercury</xref>. 12 abr. 1864. Autor não identificado. A referida matéria foi publicada no The New York Times, em 26 mar. 1864, sob o título &quot;What are we comming to, and when shall we reach it?&quot;.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>NOTT, Josiah C. Caucasian and negro races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</xref>, 24 abr. 1844.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>Disgusting case: a white girl elopes with a negro. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Memphis Daily Appeal</xref>, 11 jan. 1859.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">CROLY; WAKEMAN, 1864</xref>, p.8-14. O panfleto foi originalmente publicado em 1863.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>The miscegenation ball: Lincoln Campaign Headquarters. New York City, Sept. 1864. Library of Congress: Prints and Photograph Division. Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/">http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/</ext-link>; Acesso em: 19 out. 2012.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/">http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/</ext-link>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>Slavery in Brazil: the past and the future. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">De Bows Review</xref>..., 1860, p.478. A matéria original foi publicada no jornal Charleston Mercury. O autor foi identificado como J.R.H.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>Sobre o temor causado pela miscigenação no pós-escravidão nos Estados Unidos, ver: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">LEMIRE, 2002</xref>, p.120-125.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>The negro in America. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">The Old Guard</xref>, 4 dez. 1866.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn10">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>The colored creole. Circular, 14 nov. 1861.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn11">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>The colored creole..., cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn12">
				<label>13</label>
				<p>Amalgamation advocated. The Daily Picayune, 14 jun. 1863.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn13">
				<label>14</label>
				<p>The mixed human races. Appleton's Journal of Literature, Science and Art, 3 dez. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn14">
				<label>15</label>
				<p>Emancipation in Brazil. New York Evangelist, 26 out. 1871, p.6.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn15">
				<label>16</label>
				<p>Mixture of races. The New York Observer and Chronicle, 20 fev. 1868. Na obra A journey in Brazil, publicada em 1868, Louis Agassiz registrou suas conclusões sobre a população brasileira e os efeitos da mistura racial neste país.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn16">
				<label>17</label>
				<p>De acordo com o Webster Dictionary (1828), o termo mongrel é definido como &quot;of mixed breed, of different kinds, animal of mixed breed&quot;. A palavra é associada a mingle que, de acordo com o mesmo dicionário, quer dizer &quot;mistura&quot; e, também, &quot;promiscuidade&quot;. Disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.archive.org/stream/americandictiona01websrich#page/n7/mode/2up">http://www.archive.org/stream/americandictiona01websrich#page/n7/mode/2up</ext-link>; Acesso em: 7 nov. 2013.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn17">
				<label>18</label>
				<p>Mixture of races..., cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn18">
				<label>19</label>
				<p>Effects of the mixture of races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Medical News</xref>, set. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn19">
				<label>20</label>
				<p>Amalgamation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Cincinnati Daily Gazette</xref>, 23 ago. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn20">
				<label>21</label>
				<p>READE, John. The intermingling of races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">The Popular Science Monthly</xref>, 1 jan. 1887.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn21">
				<label>22</label>
				<p>Note-se a imprecisão das porcentagens.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn22">
				<label>23</label>
				<p>READE, 1887, cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn23">
				<label>24</label>
				<p>Aída é uma ópera composta por Giuseppe Verdi e Antonio Ghislanzoni, que estreou no Cairo, em 24 de dezembro de 1871. A obra foi apresentada, pela primeira vez, no Brasil, em 30 de junho de 1886, no Teatro Lírico Fluminense, no Rio de Janeiro. Informações gerais sobre a ópera Aída podem ser encontradas em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida</ext-link>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn24">
				<label>25</label>
				<p>THE NEW AMERICAN DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. New York: World Manufacturing CO, 1882. O dicionário Webster (1882) está disponível em: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/stream/newamericandicti00newyiala#page/84/mode/2up">https://archive.org/stream/newamericandicti00newyiala#page/84/mode/2up</ext-link>; Acesso em: 12 nov. 2013.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn25">
				<label>26</label>
				<p>A creole beauty: the scion of an English family narrowly escapes miscegenation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">The State</xref>, Columbia, Carolina do Sul, 1892.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn26">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>Miscegenation at the North. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">The Charleston Mercury</xref>. 12 Apr. 1864. Unidentified author. The other article was published in The New York Times, 26 Mar. 1864, with the title &quot;What are we coming to, and when shall we reach it?&quot;.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn27">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>NOTT, Josiah C. Caucasian and negro races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</xref>, 24 Apr. 1844.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn28">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>Disgusting case: a white girl elopes with a negro. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Memphis Daily Appeal</xref>, 11 Jan. 1859.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn29">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">CROLY; WAKEMAN, 1864</xref>, pp. 8-14. The pamphlet was originally published in 1863.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn30">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>The miscegenation ball: Lincoln Campaign Headquarters. New York City, Sept. 1864. Library of Congress: Prints and Photograph Division. Available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/">http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/</ext-link>; Accessed on: 19 Oct. 2012.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn31">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>Accessed on: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/">http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661682/</ext-link>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn32">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>Slavery in Brazil: the past and the future. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">De Bows Review</xref>..., 1860, p. 478. The original report was published in the newspaper Charleston Mercury. The author was identified as J.R.H.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn33">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>In relation to the fear caused by miscegenation in post-slavery United States, see: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">LEMIRE, 2002</xref>, pp. 120-125.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn34">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>The negro in America. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">The Old Guard</xref>, 4 Dec. 1866.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn35">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>The colored creole. Circular, 14 Nov. 1861.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn36">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>The colored creole..., cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn37">
				<label>13</label>
				<p>Amalgamation advocated. The Daily Picayune, 14 June 1863.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn38">
				<label>14</label>
				<p>The mixed human races. Appleton's Journal of Literature, Science and Art, 3 Dec. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn39">
				<label>15</label>
				<p>Emancipation in Brazil. New York Evangelist, 26 Oct. 1871, p. 6.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn40">
				<label>16</label>
				<p>Mixture of races. The New York Observer and Chronicle, 20 Feb. 1868. In the book A journey in Brazil, published in 1868, Louis Agassiz registered his conclusions about the Brazilian population and the effects of racial mixing in the country.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn41">
				<label>17</label>
				<p>According to the Webster Dictionary (1828), the term mongrel is defined as &quot;of mixed breed, of different kinds, animal of mixed breed.&quot; The word is associated with mingle which according to the same dictionary means 'mixing' and also 'promiscuity.' Available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.archive.org/stream/americandictiona01websrich#page/n7/mode/2up">http://www.archive.org/stream/americandictiona01websrich#page/n7/mode/2up</ext-link>; Accessed on: 7 Nov. 2013.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn42">
				<label>18</label>
				<p>Mixture of races..., cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn43">
				<label>19</label>
				<p>Effects of the mixture of races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Medical News</xref>, Sept. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn44">
				<label>20</label>
				<p>Amalgamation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Cincinnati Daily Gazette</xref>, 23 Aug. 1870.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn45">
				<label>21</label>
				<p>READE, John. The intermingling of races. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">The Popular Science Monthly</xref>, 1 Jan. 1887.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn46">
				<label>22</label>
				<p>The imprecision of the percentages can be noted.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn47">
				<label>23</label>
				<p>READE, 1887, cit.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn48">
				<label>24</label>
				<p>Aida is an opera composed by Giuseppe Verdi and Antonio Ghislanzoni, who opened in Cairo, on 24 December 1871. The work was presented for the first time in Brazil on 30 June 1886, in the Lírico Fluminense Theater in Rio de Janeiro. General information about the opera Aida can be found at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida</ext-link>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn49">
				<label>25</label>
				<p>THE NEW AMERICAN DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. New York: World Manufacturing CO, 1882. The Webster dictionary (1882) is available at: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://archive.org/stream/newamericandicti00newyiala#page/84/mode/2up">https://archive.org/stream/newamericandicti00newyiala#page/84/mode/2up</ext-link>; Accessed on: 12 Nov. 2013.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn50">
				<label>26</label>
				<p>A creole beauty: the scion of an English family narrowly escapes miscegenation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">The State</xref>, Columbia, Carolina do Sul, 1892.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The crime of miscegenation: racial mixing in slaveholding Brazil and the threat to racial purity in post-abolition United States</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Luciana da Cruz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">*</xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">New York City University (Graduate Center, CUNY). New York, NY, USA. lucianacruzbrito@gmail.com 1</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn52">
					<label>1</label>
					<p>Post-Doctoral Researcher, CUNY. Andrew W. Mellow Fellowship. Doctorate in Social History (USP), Master's in History (Unicamp), Degree in History (UFBA).</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				
			</abstract>
			
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>In 1864, still during the Civil War, the Southern newspaper <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>The Charleston Mercury</italic></xref>, a periodical from the city of Charleston, a large slaveholding center in the United States, published a report which dealt with the greatest nightmare of post-abolition US society: racial mixing, recently baptized with the name of miscegenation. The report entitled &quot;Miscegenation in the North&quot; had originally been published in the Yankee newspaper <italic>The New York Times</italic>, which circulated widely in the north of the country with the title &quot;What point at we reaching?&quot; The author of the text called attention to a phenomenon described as &quot;abnormal and detestable&quot; which was becoming common in the streets of New York, now filled with faces that were increasingly &quot;brownish.&quot;</p>
			<p>The report warned the country's citizens about the risks of a supposedly common practice among radical abolitionists, which was the habit of supporting and influencing inter-racial marriage, threatening a &quot;grandiose and prosperous&quot; country such as the United States. Also in accordance with the writer's pessimistic forecasts, due to this practice, the whites of the country would cease to exist because all the white families would shortly have a black son-in-law, which would make all Americans slowly become mulattos, affected by the &quot;unfortunate race.&quot; &quot;Goodbye, a long goodbye to our whiteness,&quot; the author lamented, believing that something had to be done to &quot;preserve the purity&quot; of the blood.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn26"><sup>2</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>The theme of racial mixing was always crucial in debates about the nation, slavery, and national identity in the United States. In the period in which the above cited article was written, during the Civil War, racial mixing was seen as one of the most harmful consequences of abolition. After all, since the American Revolution in 1776, the United States had been thought of by its elites as a country formed by white men, descendants of Europeans, and who restricted the privileges of citizenship and national belonging to their own group. Blacks, as well as indigenous peoples, were not included in the idea of a white nation invented by the country's elites (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fields, 1982</xref>). Racial mixing, thus, constituted over the years a threat to this idea, destabilizing fixed racial notions, through sometimes intermediary social places were permitted.</p>
			<p>In general, white society, in both the north and south of the US, condemned racial mixing. In the 1840s the American School of Ethnology, a movement of scientists from the north and south of the country concerned with explaining and justifying racial differences, offered various argument which favored not only the defense of slavery, but also the creation of policies constructed on the idea of <italic>white supremacy</italic>. The leader of this scientific movement, Dr. Samuel Morton, used the cranium measurement method to create a hierarchy of people in the world, but above all in the United States. Associating the weight of cranial mass and intellectual capacities, Morton concluded that blacks occupied the bottom of the scale of human evolution, while Caucasians represented the top, the vanguard of civilization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Stanton, 1960</xref>).</p>
			<p>In the south, where being black necessarily meant being a slave, skin color was an important mark of the status of men and women in the region. Racial mixing created a dilemma in the slaveholding south: what would be the place of men and women who were so fair skinned that they could pass as white? Until the beginning of the nineteenth century, slave holders believed that the 'infusion of white blood' produced slaves who were physically and intellectually better than those who were 'pure descendants of Africans.' However, with the passing of years and the growth of the number of individuals considered mulattos, as well as the increase in the number of people who apparently were white but who lived in captivity, racial mixing came to be seen as a serious threat to the slaveholding system in the South (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Tenzer, 1997</xref>, pp. 7-9).</p>
			<p>The solution to this question came from another member of the American School of Ethnology, the Southern doctor Josiah Nott. Since the 1840s he had been defending the importance of prohibiting sexual intercourse between blacks and whites in the United States. Nott stated that racial mixing, at the time called <italic>amalgamation</italic>, produced an inferior individual, degenerated and dangerous. This was because the so-called mulatto would not accept his condition as slave, thereby threatening the tranquility of white society. Nott was a polygenist, like all the members of the American School, and defended that blacks and whites were distinct species. For this reason, racial mixing would also cause the degeneration of whites, who according to him were part of a superior race (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p. 4; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Brito, 2014</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn27"><sup>3</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Josiah Nott shared these ideas with Louis Agassiz, a Swiss scientist based in the United States since 1846. Although he was opposed to slavery, Agassiz agreed with Nott about the effects of racial mixing. He stated that this practice would produce a degenerated individual and proposed that freed AfroAmericans be released far from the northern states of the United States. Later he proposed that the free black population be sent to Brazil as a form of preventing the practice of racial mixing in an unrestrained manner in the US. Agassiz carried out a scientific mission to Brazil, which was being used as an observatory of pure and mixed races. The moment chosen for this enterprise was not accidental: 1863, during the Civil War, when the central question was the dispute over the continuation or ending of slavery in the south of the United States (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Machado; Huber, 2010</xref>, pp. 30-33).</p>
			<p>When the Southern newspaper <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>Charleston Mercury</italic></xref> republished a report from a newspaper from the adversary region, <italic>The New York Times</italic>, it reflected this common idea which reconciled northern and southern elites: the rejection of racial mixing. Before the war, slaveholders from the south accused Northern abolitionists of, amongst other things, defending the end of slavery so that marriages between blacks and whites would be allowed. In the <italic>New York Times</italic> report we can find the 'accusation' that white abolitionists were willing to marry blacks to prove their belief in racial equality. From this perspective, the most feared combination in unions between blacks and whites was the one in which the white woman married a black man (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, pp. 84-97).</p>
			<p>Reports about the daughters of white abolitionists marrying blacks in the north were very common in the Southern press. An example was the marriage of Sarah Judson, whose story was published in the newspaper <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><italic>Memphis Daily Appeal</italic></xref> in 1859 and according to the author, &quot;would turn the stomach of any white.&quot; The bride, daughter of a &quot;radical abolitionist,&quot; was induced by her father to marry a black man &quot;against the designs of nature.&quot;<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn28"><sup>4</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>According to the historian Martha Hodes, it was during and after the Civil War that sexual-affective relations between blacks and whites came to be less tolerated in the United States, above all in relations in which the woman belonged to the 'white race.' As the War approached, when slavery was more threatened, the children of white mothers and black fathers destabilized even more the slaveholding system, since the condition of the mother defined the <italic>status</italic> of the offspring. This was not the case of relations between white men and black women, often resulting from sexual violence and/or coercion, which fed back in to the slaveholding system, since black women produced enslaved individuals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Hodes, 1997</xref>).</p>
			<p>The 1860s was a period of anxiety related to the theme of racial mixing, above all following the abolition of slavery in the southern states and the reelection of Lincoln, which occurred between 1863 and 1864. These facts influenced the debates about future policies in relation to the status of the freed slaves in the north and south of the United States. In addition, these debates sought to justify arguments by using the scientific theses produced by the American School of Ethnology in the 1850s.Various questions were raised in the post-abolition period: were the freed slaves to be inserted in a society with the same rights as whites? Would abolition be followed by a project of racial equality? Would abolition signify the end of racism? How to guarantee that freed slaves would continue to work, including for their former masters? How to guarantee the supremacy of whites? At the same time that these questions were raised by slaveholders and even by moderate abolitionists, the black community was shown to be hopeful about the future. Freed slaves in the north believed in equality of rights, above all the right to vote and the end of segregated spaces (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Holt, 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>During the 1863 electoral campaign, the Democrats (defenders of slavery) tried to associate the practice of miscegenation with the image of President Lincoln, who was a candidate for re-election for the Republican party. When Lincoln decreed the end of slavery in the Southern states in 1863, the law was ignored by slave holders in that region. This was enough for the president to be accused of leading a 'crusade' in favor of blacks and of being a supporter of marriage between blacks and whites. Lincoln had stated years before that he did not believe in racial equality, and saw the idea of inter-racial marriage as naturally repugnant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Kaplan, 1949</xref>).</p>
			<p>The Democrats thus used a strategy to link once and for all the image of President Lincoln to the practice of amalgamation. In the heat of the electoral campaign, two democratic journalists, David Goodman Croly and George Wakeman, used a pamphlet called &quot;Miscegenation: the theory of racial mixing applied to the white American man and the black.&quot; The leaflet was false, and the intention of the authors, then anonymous, was to leave the impression of that it had been written by radical Republican abolitionists, supporters of Lincoln and inter-racial marriage. The text had a great repercussion in the North, where the majority of the president's voters were based, affecting public opinion terrorized by the ideas defended in the pamphlet, which promoted racial mixing as something practiced among the most advanced nations of the world. The text also pointed to people of mixed race as being the people of the future, a vision not very common in the United States, affirming that mixed races were superior and thereby opposed to the central justification of white superiority: racial purity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, p. 116; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, pp. 171-174).</p>
			<p>The pamphlet created the term <italic>miscegenation</italic>, which from then on would be used to designate mixing between people from different races. Moreover, the publication also attracted the attention of public opinion because it directly dealt with the theme of marriages between blacks and whites, a subject which caused reactions in the North of the United States whenever abolition was debated. In the 1860s racial mixing was completely condemned in the South, because at that moment the possible involvement of freed blacks and poor whites was in question, which contradicted racial rules imposed during slavery. Similarly, in the North racial miscegenation was also condemned, and the pamphlet also created negative reactions, even some abolitionists believed that the text was pro-miscegenation. Although it was false, the &quot;Miscegenation...&quot; pamphlet gained veracity because it used a scientific language. Moreover, to exemplify the supposed benefits of racial mixing the authors made ample use of representations of Latin America. This was a form of making US readers also visualize their country as a 'mixed' society.</p>
			<p>The use of Latin America can be perceived in the section &quot;Superiority of the mixed races.&quot; Here the authors stated that the mixed races were mentally, physically, and morally superior to the pure race which had not mixed, and mentioned the example of the <italic>sambos</italic> in South America, descendants of blacks and Indians. Once again, Brazil was cited as an example of a country where the people were miscegenated, collaborating with the consolidation of the idea of mixing in the country.</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>The <italic>cafuzos</italic> in Brazil, a mix of Indigenous peoples and blacks, are mentioned by travelers as a slim and muscular type, and with excessively long hair which is kind of curly, especially at the tips and grows perpendicular to the forehead to the length of a foot or a foot and a half. This form very beautiful hair which is the result of a mix of the curly hair of the black with the heavy and long hair of the Indian.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn29"><sup>5</sup></xref>
				</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Even under false pretenses, the pamphlet disseminated an image of the Brazilian as a perfect type, the beautiful result of the racial mixing in force in that society. This positive image of the so-called mulatto nourished the fantasies, or better the fears, of US society which saw in Brazil, like other Latin American countries, an anti-example of its nation project. This representation of the Brazilian type also fulfilled another role in the black abolitionist movement. The Afro-American abolitionists saw in the miscegenated Brazilian people a reference for their struggle for integration and racial equality. For them, racial mixing signified the absence of prejudice, which made the Empire an important example when they needed to convince their compatriots of both the possibility of coexistence between blacks and white in an egalitarian manner in relation to the potentials of blacks and mixed people (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Brito, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Northerners and Southerners, notwithstanding the rivalry provoked by the Civil War, agreed that the freed slaves could not live in a condition of equality with the white population. The idea of racial mixing caused real repugnance among Northerners and was seen as something against natural laws, which resulted in the theme of inter-racial marriage becoming important in the 1864 election. In the same year, a series of caricatures were made to illustrate miscegenation as the result of the election of the president. Cartoons were widely published in the anti-abolitionist press after the electoral victory of Abraham Lincoln, who would be held responsible by his opponents for promoting the mixing of races in the United States after having abolished slavery (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>, pp. 115-116).</p>
			<p>One of these caricatures had as a theme a dance, the <italic>Miscegenation Ball</italic>, which was held in Lincoln's campaign headquarters (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>). The party represented a complete inversion of order: whites and blacks, now freed, celebrated together without obeying the rules of racial decorum. Black women, with animalized characteristics and voluptuous forms, seduced white men who were attracted by their sexual instincts. In fact, the representation of black women followed what science said about them: excessive corporeality and unbridled sexuality. The cartoon sought to portray the loss of control over black female bodies and the excesses caused by abolition.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figure 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>The Miscegenation Ball</italic> - 1864.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-36-72-00107-gf3.tif"/>
					<attrib>Source: Library of Congress: Prints and Photograph Division.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn30"><sup>6</sup></xref>
					</attrib>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>In the background of the image we can see an immense photo of President Lincoln and an immense banner which ironized the racial equality agenda of the abolitionist movement: &quot;Universal Freedom, one Constitution, one destiny.&quot; In the upper part, on the roof of the ballroom, white observers watch the scene and, since they were not participating in it, certainly watched it with reproving eyes. In this way sectors opposed to abolition, represented by the Democratic Party, exploited the fears of US society about racial mixing.</p>
			<p>The caricature had the clear political objective of associating racial mixing with the Republican Party, of the then presidential candidate for re-election. A caption on the bottom explained the event, which had happened in &quot;headquarters of the Lincoln campaign.&quot; Also according to this caption, once the formal activities were completed, the ballroom was freed for a <italic>negro ball</italic>. In addition, the caption stated that many members of the party left before the ball began, but those in the ballroom were all members of the Republican Party which in the caption was called the &quot;black Republican Party&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Lemire, 2002</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn31"><sup>7</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Also in 1864, the pamphlet &quot;What amalgamation is and what we are to expect now that Mr. Lincoln is re-elected&quot; made a similar portrayal of what was occurring in the United States following abolition and the victory of Lincoln. The cover of the pamphlet materialized the worst of the consequences of racial mixing: the fact that white women, guardians of racial purity, were violated by black men. For this, the image of the men is stripped of human characteristics and exaggerated traits in the lips, eyes, and nose, the way black people would be represented in the US media from then on (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figure 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Cover of the pamphlet &quot;What amalgamation is and what we are to expect now that Mr. Lincoln is re-elected,&quot; 1864.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-36-72-00107-gf4.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>The 1860s were a moment of speculation about how to maintain the old ideal of the white and masculine US nation, given the real possibility of abolition and the new condition of Afro-Americans, who demanded the right to be citizens of the country. According to Barbara Fields, since the eighteenth century the national elites in the United States had defined an idea of a nation for the country based on the gender and race, namely the white man descendent of Europeans who was the representative of this homogenous group which formed the nation. Therefore, this 'imagined community,' according to the term created by Benedict Anderson, excluded blacks and indigenous people from the idea of the 'typical' American created by its elites. Racial purity was part of this creation and constituted the principal counterpoint in relation to the other national states in the tropics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Fields, 1982</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Anderson, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Painter, 2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>What then did it signify to American elites that the United States would become a country of mulattos, where whites &quot;would soon no longer exist&quot; according to the pessimistic forecasts of the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><italic>Charleston Mercury</italic></xref> and the <italic>New York Times</italic>? What was the meaning of the publications of the cartoon &quot;The miscegenation ball&quot; and the pamphlet &quot;What miscegenation is&quot;? In what way was miscegenation incompatible with the project of a 'grandiose and prosperous country'? How did racial mixing go against the ideal of the nation existing among US elites even after abolition?</p>
			<sec>
				<title>THE CRIME OF MISCEGENATION IN BRAZIL</title>
				<p>In 1860, it was again the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><italic>De Bows Review</italic></xref> newspaper, which had a wide circulation among the slaveholding classes of the South, which took upon itself the responsibility for providing society with an example of what could happen with a prosperous country with great potential if there did not exist laws which did not construct barriers to coexistence between blacks and whites.</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>Unfortunately, the Brazilian constitution considers all men equal if they are free, whether they are black men or white men. The effects of the equality of these laws do not need demonstration. This has plunged Brazil into a political revolution which has been destroying the Imperial government and its army, the majority of which is composed of blacks who will shortly dictate the terms of emancipation to the nation and the Empire will be converted into another Venezuela.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn32"><sup>8</sup></xref>
					</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>According to J.R.H., author of the article, Brazil was a country full of natural wealth, though the growth of what he called the 'hybrid race' had condemned the country to failure. This was because the hybrid Brazilians had the privilege of being citizens, which gave them the possibility of unrestricted social ascension, even going as far as the possibility of 'leading the government.' Also in the opinion of this writer, Brazilians were such a mixed race that they could not progress, an idea that made a direct reference to the American School of Ethnology about the degenerative effects of racial mixing. Furthermore, he also stated that the lack of morality of the natives and the absence of local policies which regulated coexistence between blacks and whites in Brazil was the fault of English abolitionism, which had transformed Brazil &quot;into its own Jamaica,&quot; in other words a colony. Finally, the author made a warning about the dangers of the abolitionist movement: &quot;the current conditions of Brazil can alert us to the dangers which we have escaped, in the middle of the fanaticism which had tormented us.&quot;</p>
				<p>The historian Barbara Weinstein helps us understand this Southern and slaveholding reading of Brazilian slaveholding society through the different ideas of the nation which were being formed in the two countries during the nineteenth century. According to her, the Brazilian Empire did not produce an idea of a nation which was linked to captivity, weakening the defense of slavery as it was considered a 'necessary evil' even among its defenders. This recognition of slavery as an evil left Brazilian slaveholders aware that slavery was something temporary and that it would have no place in a modern and republican Brazil. The large number of freed slaves, the allowing of the purchase of <italic>alforrias</italic> (freedom) and the breaches created by citizenship also made the Empire a complex society, where being black did not necessarily mean being a slave, notwithstanding the slavery which accompanied the African and Afro-Brazilian population.</p>
				<p>In the South of the United States, slavery was always thought of as an institution which defined Southern society. Politicians, scientists, and intellectuals prepared a complex argument which made the slave something linked to Southern identity, especially during and after the Civil War. Theories of <italic>white supremacy</italic> and the purity of blood would be supported by Christianity, science, law, and the Southern economy, so that even in the post-abolition period the south continued to identified as a region wistful of slavery, maintaining norms of racial segregation which extended until the twentieth century. While in Brazil after a certain moment slavery came to be regarded as a moral problem, in the southern states of the United States it was seen as a system of labor and social organization which guaranteed the economic success and superiority of the region in relation to the north of the country and other slaveholding nations. Among the southern states being black meant being a slave, so that when the Civil War was approaching new rules hindered the purchase of freedom. In the South of the US, even after abolition, other practices were implemented based on racial differentiation to maintain the black community in a subaltern status (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Weinstein, 2006</xref>).</p>
				<p>Brazil, like other Latin American countries, continued to be cited for a long time as a laboratory of the worst effects of miscegenation, constituting an observatory of societies without a project for a <italic>white man nation</italic>. In this sense, Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, and the already mentioned Venezuela were examples worthy of observation and at the same time repugnance.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn33"><sup>9</sup></xref> The need for racial segregation policies in the post-Civil War period intensified the debate about the effects of racial mixing and policies which aimed at preventing this practice, since abolition would not resolve the 'racial problem' in the country.</p>
				<p>In 1866, in an article called &quot;The Negro in America,&quot; an unidentified author adopted an even more radical posture by stating that the Caucasians who had invaded and occupied Africa had &quot;committed suicide and selfdestruction by amalgamating with inferior races or worse, with the worst species of the continent.&quot; According to the author, the Europeans in Spanish American had committed the same error.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn34"><sup>10</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>However, there were those who thought differently about the effects of racial mixing, which for some was a positive escape from the problem which would be created in the country in the post-abolition period. Even if this perspective had succumbed to another nation project which would be consolidated during the 1870s and 1880s, this shows us that for a certain period the defense of racial segregation was not a consensus. Since 1861 there had been those who defended that racial mixing would bring benefits to the United States. In the article &quot;The colored creole,&quot; an unidentified author presented American society with the positive results of racial mixing in post-abolition British colonies and even in slaveholding Brazil. According to this author, racial mixing was responsible for reducing prejudice among whites.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn35"><sup>11</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The article states that there were 13 million Africans and their descendants in the Americas, who were distributed among countries such as Brazil - where there were more than four million -, followed by Cuba and Porto Rico, Central America, Haiti, French and British colonies, as well as Mexico. Half of the nine million blacks who were in the Americas, with the exception of the United States, were of biracial origin, and in countries such as Brazil, Guatemala, Grenada, Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica and even in Haiti, the absence of racial prejudice allowed the black population to participate completely in society (ibidem).</p>
				<p>According to the author of &quot;The colored creole,&quot; there was no other alternative for whites in the United States other than to pacifically accept the participation of persons of mixed race in society, also as citizens. Also according to him, in Latin America and in the Caribbean, those of mixed race had shown themselves to be capable of achieving high intellectual performance and of having abilities for free labor. Opposing the thesis of the degeneration of mulattos, the author stated that individuals of a biracial origin also could serve as an intermediate class which could reduce possible racial tensions, as had occurred in Haiti.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn36"><sup>12</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>In 1864, the white abolitionist Theodore Tildon also came out publicly in favor of miscegenation. According to him, racial mixing was the best solution for the future of the United States in the post-abolition period, since he saw miscegenation as an intermediate stage for whitening, while society would become less prejudiced (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, pp. 172-173).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn37"><sup>13</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Even though this was not a very common opinion, a positive idea of racial mixing had some adepts in the post-abolition period who insisted on pointing to other countries as nations which benefitted from its effects. The article &quot;The mixed human race&quot;, for example, summarized these benefits in Martinique, in San Domingo (Haiti), and in Brazil, amongst other countries where &quot;the mulattos are compatible with whites in a favorable form in various aspects.&quot; Following the theories of Tildon and the French writer M. De Quatrefages, the province of São Paulo in Brazil was a place where mixing between Portuguese and Aimoré, Guaianaz, and Carijó Indians had produced a superior hybrid race, something unthinkable for polygenist scientists. The article also stated that racial mixing had made the mulattos better adapted to the local climate than to those individuals considered 'pure.'<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn38"><sup>14</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The example of Brazil, where the positive aspects of amalgamation were recognized, made some individuals believe that, the integration of blacks in society through racial mixing would end the racial prejudice that existed in the United States. In the article &quot;Emancipation in Brazil,&quot; the writer stated that the Brazilian <italic>melting pot</italic>, in other words, the mixing of races, made the Latin American country a good example which would naturally lead the Empire to the end of slavery. The anonymous author stated that even though Brazilian society was recognizably stratified: at the top of the national elite were the whites, descendants of Europeans (Portuguese, French, Germans); afterwards came the white Brazilians; and finally were the mulattos of all colors descendants of whites and Indians, Africans and Indians, free blacks, and 'uncivilized' and 'domesticated' Indians (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Fredrickson, 1971</xref>, p. 131).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn39"><sup>15</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>After the Civil War, in the United States, the so-called 'mulatto' threatened progress and civilization, because they degenerated society and created socio-racial categories which destabilized social order (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Rogers, 2010</xref>, pp. 280-281; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Machado; Huber, 2010</xref>, pp. 30-36). For this reason, Brazil became consolidated as a laboratory of races where Americans could find the physical, political, and moral results of racial mixing practiced in an unchecked manner. The photographs produced by the team of the scientist Louis Agassiz between 1865 and 1866 portrayed 'pure' African men and women and those classified as 'impure' or 'mixed' races. The images were an illustration of what the population of the United States could become without politics of racial segregation.</p>
				<p>In 1868, the <italic>New York Observer and Chronicle</italic> published some reports about Brazil produced by Agassiz.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn40"><sup>16</sup></xref> He stated that amalgamation was practiced more than anywhere else in the world, causing the deterioration of the country and producing a <italic>mongrel non-descript type</italic>,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn41"><sup>17</sup></xref> that was physically and mentally deficient. Agassiz also said that although the country was slaveholding, the absence of racial barriers meant that freed Brazilian slaves had more liberty than those recently freed in post-abolition United States.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn42"><sup>18</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Racial mixing in Brazil, according to Agassiz, was also the theme of the article called &quot;Effects of the admixture of races,&quot; published in the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><italic>Medical News</italic></xref> in 1870, in which were reproduced some citations of his work in which he described the characteristic of the Brazilian population, attributing different terminologies to each racial combination. In relation to the <italic>cafuzo</italic>, a mix of Indians and blacks, he said that they did not have anything of the &quot;delicateness of mulattos,&quot; and they were described as having &quot;dark skin, long, wavy and curly hair.&quot; In relation to character, he defined them as &quot;having a happy combination between the joyful disposition of the black and energetic bravery of the Indians.&quot;<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn43"><sup>19</sup></xref> The <italic>mameluco</italic> was described as a mix of Indians and whites, resulting in a &quot;pallid, effeminate, lazy, weak...&quot; being. After stating that the Indigenous people compromised the positive qualities of the other ancestor in mixed people in any combination, whether with whites or blacks, the article ended reaffirming the need for the maintenance of inequalities, justified by the actual limitations of blacks and those of mixed race.</p>
				<p>Since the pre-Civil War period, before the United States adopted a rigid code of racial segregation which classified the population in a binary form, the theme of the social and legal place of those of mixed descent was widely debated. It was in the 1850s, when there was a considerable quantity of fair skinned slaves, that the so-called mulattos began to lose their intermediate status and were increasingly 'approximated' with the category of blacks. In the case of those who could be confused with whites, the possibility of <italic>passing</italic>, facilitated by the imprecision of identifying anyone as black or white, revealed the breaches in the Southern racial system. According to Lawrence Tenzer, this &quot;white slavery&quot; weakened racialized slavery in the south and was constituted as one of the causes of the Civil War in the country (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Tenzer, 1997</xref>).</p>
				<p>According to Williamson, until the 1850s, free mulattos tried to approximate the world of the whites, which was possible in regions in the extreme south, above all those closest to the Caribbean. Between the 1850s and 1860s, the number of mulattos grew considerably, including those who were enslaved. In a decade the number of mulatto slaves rose from 66.9% to 72.3%. By 1860, 94.2% of the mulattos who lived in the South had been enslaved, and there was an accentuated wave of intolerance among the white population towards the mulattos who had been born free. In other words, once again the problem was not racial mixing in itself, but with the mixing that produced a free individual who tried to pass himself as white. To the extent that the enslaved population was becoming more fair skinned and slavery more threatened, the <italic>one drop rule</italic>, one drop of black blood, was becoming more applied to racially define the population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, pp. 61-73).</p>
				<p>To show that the condition of individuals of a <italic>mixed race</italic> was very complex in the United States, an anonymous author identifying as mixed wrote an article to express his opinion about the social condition of this group, which he called the &quot;unfortunate class.&quot;<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn44"><sup>20</sup></xref> According to <italic>Amalgamated Man</italic>, the manner in which he identified himself, people such as him had their social condition worsened by the fact that they were victims of prejudice by people of 'pure race,' both black and white. Although, in his view people of a biracial origin were not prejudiced against anyone, he commented on the marginal place of 'mulattos' in American society. The white community did not accept them because it considered them inferior beings in every sense, and the black community did not accept them because it considered them selfish, a characteristic believed to be inherited from their white ancestry (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p. 102).</p>
				<p>The writer questioned the data which pointed to the existence of a small quantity of people of mixed race in the United States. According to him, this idea was related to scientific theories which affirmed the limited longevity of these individuals. He stated that people of <italic>mixed blood</italic> composed in 1860 one quarter of the 'colored' population, instead of the official number which was one ninth. These numbers were compromised by the 'interests of slavery.' Moreover, <italic>Amalgamated Man</italic> stated that many individuals with dark skin were also of biracial origin and were registered as <italic>colored</italic>. At the same time, other individuals registered as white were actually mixed.</p>
				<p>The Canadian poet and journalist John Reade gave his contribution to the subject in the article &quot;The intermingling of races,&quot; where he stated that racial mixing had already occurred in the United States, in both the South and the North, and had presented positive results in sense of forming a civilized and uniform nation.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn45"><sup>21</sup></xref> According to him, white men were having relations with women from the Cherokee and Choctaw, who &quot;due to their beauty and intelligence could be compared to any Southern lady.&quot; In addition, to the &quot;fusion of distinct blood&quot; being highlighted as the path to civilization, he also stated that racial mixing reduced conflicts and prejudice, which was already happening among Indians and whites in the indigenous territories (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">McClintock, 1995</xref>, pp. 1-14; 23-24).</p>
				<p>He also presented data which said that in Mexico and South America people of <italic>mixed blood</italic> composed one fifth of the population, while only 20% were composed of Europeans and three-quarters of indigenous peoples.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn46"><sup>22</sup></xref> According to this tendency, in countries such as Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, San Salvador and Costa Rica, the majority of the population were indigenous and mixed. In South America, he stated, the <italic>mixed races</italic> were the most numerous part of the population and even in Brazil a significant part of the slaves and freedmen were a 'mix' of creoles and Indians. In fact, Reade stated that the Portuguese were constant 'amalgamators' who mixed with all the populations they conquered, as was the case of Brazil itself.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn47"><sup>23</sup></xref>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>DECIPHERING THE BRAZILIAN <italic>MELTING POT</italic></title>
				<p>The post-abolition period in the United States was a period marked by completely distinct nation projects. During the period known as Reconstruction, between 1863 and 1877, when the black community aspired to full participation in the country's social and political life, old racist values subsisted among the white community which insisted on maintaining the old racial hierarchies. After 1867, Reconstruction aimed at guaranteeing the employment of free labor in the south, the reincorporation of the Confederation states in the Union, as well as the right to vote of the black population and the granting of citizenship to Afro-Americans, which only happened with the 14<sup>th</sup> Amendment in 1868. The policies implemented during Reconstruction drastically changed the dynamics of life in the South, since from then on black men and women could in some way impose their conditions of labor, for example refusing to work for their former masters. Others maintained these ties, but received wages (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Foner, 1990</xref>, pp. 34-35).</p>
				<p>This autonomy was seen as an inversion of the social order, insubordination, and the breaking of the paternalist rules which guaranteed that white people could interfere and determine the choices of the black population. With this the Southern political elite saw itself as stripped of power, which generated among them a feeling even more resistant to abolition, provoking various acts of violence targeting black men and women. Former slaveholders began to understand that without slavery, which had guided social and labor relations, they would suffer a drastic loss of the sovereignty which differentiated them from the rest of the population. Therefore, segregationist policies and the valorization of white supremacy were reaffirmed in the South in the final years of Reconstruction, which according to the historian Thomas Holt, also marked a moment of reconciliation between the northern and southern regions. In addition to the restriction of the rights of the freed slaves, this signified the reaffirmation of the United States as a society whose national identity was sustained by the hegemony of the white population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Holt, 2010</xref>, pp. 158-172).</p>
				<p>In this period in which the United States was reaffirming itself as a nation which repudiated racial mixing, Brazil continued to be seen as a nation which was organized without the existence of laws of racial segregation. Moreover, Brazil continued as an important example for perceiving the effects of miscegenation among the population.</p>
				<p>Frank Carpenter, a writer, tells the story of an American family in Rio de Janeiro, in the novel <italic>Round about Rio</italic>, in which the travelers narrate their experiences in Brazil as well as their impressions about local blacks and mulattos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Carpenter, 1884</xref>). In 1881, he published these impressions in the article &quot;Race in Brazil&quot;, in which he tried to understand the reasons for the absence of prejudice in Brazil and how racial mixing, seen as a natural practice in the country, guided various aspects of Brazilian life.</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>In its desire for self-development, Brazil has advanced along steps with a forced and destructive growth. The country has brought a large number of immigrants from all nations to its coast, and among them, evidentially, men have predominated. These men have to have wives and since the country does not have sufficient white women to meet the demand, they been obliged to accept women who were descendants of blacks and indigenous. As a result, the blood of the three is strongly mixed at all levels of Brazilian society, and a line of color is produced in an indistinct form. Like at daybreak when it is difficult to say where the darkness ends and the light begins. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Carpenter said that he perceived that, as in the United States, the presence of the black population was also considered bad for Brazil. Even affirming that racial prejudice was an unjust and anti-republican feeling strongly enrooted in US society, Carpenter did not believe that whites and blacks should occupy the same place in society or were equal. In his view, the reason for the absence of racial prejudice in Brazil was miscegenation, which cooled tempers, but at the same time degenerated the population. Nevertheless, he stated that at least racial hierarchies were respected in army, where there was intense racial diversity. According to him, &quot;since blacks are unquestionably an inferior race,&quot; whites were those who occupied the upper ranks of the Armed Forces in the Empire (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>).</p>
				<p>Frank Carpenter also used art to interpret the Brazilian racial reality. One night, in the tropical scenario of the capital of the Empire, he heard the music of the opera <italic>Aida</italic>. This made him imagine that, possibly, the piano could be played by a mulatto pianist. The writer said that this made him reflect on the reasons for the success of this opera in Brazil, leading him to conclude that it was in the inter-racial romance between &quot;the dark-skinned Ethiopian princess and her Egyptian lover from the North,&quot; the white general Radamès.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn48"><sup>24</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>With the same theme, inter-racial love, the Brazilian <italic>O Guarani</italic> was also in Frank Carpenter's opinion, a representation of national feeling about racial mixing: &quot;a Portuguese heroine with blue eyes and golden hair, and the hero, a pure blood Indian.&quot; The naturalness with which Brazilian society accepted relations between people of &quot;distinct races&quot; was, according to Carpenter, the reason for the absence of racial conflicts in the country, which at the same time prevented the progress of society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Carpenter, 1881</xref>).</p>
				<p>Another story published in a Southern newspaper after Reconstruction also reveals this moment of reinforcing the ideas of white supremacy and racial anti-miscegenation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><italic>The State</italic></xref>, a newspaper from South Carolina, published in 1892 the article <italic>A creole beauty</italic>, which told the story of Elizabeth Farnese, a young woman who arrived in New Orleans having come from Santiago de Cuba as a servant for a Southern family. Elizabeth was described in the articles as a woman of around 18, endowed with &quot;enchanting eyes and shining hair.&quot; Elizabeth's secret was described when the author described the color of her skin: &quot;the girl had sufficient black blood in her views to give a [light] dark color to her very soft skin.&quot; Elizabeth said she was a <italic>creole</italic>, a term which in the United States was used for someone from the West Indies or South America who had European ancestry. The same term was also used to designate &quot;any person born close to the tropics.&quot;<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn49"><sup>25</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>People such as Elizabeth Farnese appeared often in the fiction of the postabolition American South, where it was imagined that Europeans of a Latin origin (Portuguese, Spanish) had a dark or bronzed, skin different from the Anglo-Saxons. For this reason, men or women practicing <italic>passing</italic>, passing themselves off as white, would adopt Latin surnames.</p>
				<p>According to Williamson, until the Civil War, there existed in the South some toleration of individuals with a dark skin but who were of Latin origin. However, especially after the war, when the obsession with racial purity increased in the region, those who until then had enjoyed an intermediary place came to be approximated with the category of blacks. Moreover, laws which prohibited inter-racial marriage were implemented in this period. In the state of Louisiana, for example, marriages between blacks and whites were forbidden until 1967 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, pp. 91-97).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn50"><sup>26</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Elizabeth stated that she was a daughter of a rich coffee planter in Brazil who had gone bankrupt. Her bourgeois origin explained her good manners and her English spoken with a &quot;light foreign accent.&quot; Living in Southern society, being accepted in white social circles, moving among young people as &quot;an equal,&quot; she managed to attract the attention of a rich Englishman who asked to marry her. Elizabeth's fairy tale began to collapse when her true identity began to be investigated by the &quot;ambitious&quot; mother of the bridegroom, who was suspicious of her doubtfully tanned skin (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Williamson, 1980</xref>, p. 103).</p>
				<p>Finally, it was discovered that Elizabeth was actually the daughter of &quot;a humble couple of mulattos who for years had taken care of a church in Santiago,&quot; Cuba. Her good education and sophisticated manners were justified by being educated in a convent, fruit of the compassion of the members of the church, pitying the poverty of the &quot;colored family.&quot; Having discovered Elizabeth's origin, the preservation of the racial purity of the family of her future husband resulted in the wedding being cancelled and the scandal hushed up by the payment of a sum of money which bought the silence of Elizabeth.</p>
				<p>Whether or not it was true, this story had an important message: only among people from the tropics with the same racial origin as Elizabeth did she have any possibility of social ascension. An example of this is the fact that one of her children became &quot;a rich government official and influential citizen in the Republic of Brazil&quot; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Hiraldo, 2003</xref>, pp. 51-61).</p>
				<p>The story of the <italic>passing</italic> of Elizabeth Farnese reveals much about the racial policy of the United States at the end of the nineteenth century and also the imagination of Southern elites in relation to the racial dynamics of Latina America. This story was a warning to Southern families to guarantee the purity of their lineage, by being careful about the men and women participating in their social circles who were passing themselves as whites. Furthermore, examples of racial categories such <italic>creole</italic>, <italic>Spanish</italic>, <italic>mulatto</italic> and <italic>Latin</italic> revealed an enormous racial imprecision which could have been mobilized by people such as Elizabeth, who sought to avoid the harsh segregationist policies imposed by the US binary racial system.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>FINAL CONSIDERATIONS</title>
				<p>Throughout the post-abolition period US elites reaffirmed old ideas of racial difference, implemented a harsh system of segregation which survived until the twentieth century. More than this, the United States affirmed itself to be a country where the <italic>one drop</italic> rule guided racial relations, while Latin American country became their opposite. In this way, they constructed an idea of a nation based on what would make them different from the miscegenated and degenerated 'others.' Brazil, as a large slaveholding nation, had a fundamental role in this process of the creation of the 'American nation.' This was because, after the Civil War, when fears that proximity between blacks and whites would result in the 'Latinization' of the population, the defense of racial purity was reinforced based on the maintenance of old theories which condemned miscegenation.</p>
				<p>The theme of racial mixing was central to the construction of the identity and idea of the US nation. First, because national elites reinforced the thesis of the exceptionality of the country in relation to other American societies, considered degenerated due to miscegenation. For this reason, a wide-ranging scientific, political, and religious apparatus defended these ideas during the slaveholding period. During Reconstruction, even when other perspectives about the effects of racial mixing were announced in order for this practice to be a possible path to the homogenization of the population and the resolution of the racial tensions of the country, this project ended up being defeated by the idea of racial purity defended by national elites.</p>
				<p>When, from the 1880s onwards, the United States reinforced segregationist policies as a form of protecting its original nation project for white men, Latin American nations, including Brazil, adopted other national projects for homogenizing the population, which occurred through racial mixing as a form of making black and indigenous populations disappear. The same perspectives about the uses and effects of miscegenation were widely discussed in the US press at the end of the nineteenth century as a way of disseminating and defending the importance of racial purity to preserve the original ideal of nation, constructed during the slaveholding period, but which had to be maintained even in a free society. At the same time that they produced an ideal about themselves, they also produced an image about an 'other' who was black, tropical, miscegenated, and also degenerated.</p>
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