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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rbh</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista Brasileira de História</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. Bras. Hist.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0102-0188</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1806-9347</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Associação Nacional de História - ANPUH</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1806-93472019v39n81-08</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Pessoas, manatins e o ambiente aquático na América moderna: confluência e divergência nas interações históricas entre humanos e animais</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>People, Manatees and the Aquatic Environment in Early Modern Americas: Confluence and Divergence in the Historical Relationships Between Humans and Animals</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7895-0784</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Cristina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
					</contrib-group>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Centro de Humanidades (CHAM), Lisboa, Portugal. cbrito@fcsh.unl.pt</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Nova de Lisboa</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Nova de Lisboa</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Humanidades</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Lisboa</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="PT">Portugal</country>
					<email>cbrito@fcsh.unl.pt</email>
				</aff>
			<!--<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>03</day>
				<month>07</month>-->
				<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2019</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>39</volume>
			<issue>81</issue>
			<fpage>163</fpage>
			<lpage>184</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2018</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>12</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMO</title>
				<p>Com uma distribuição geográfica histórica alargada em zonas costeiras, ambientes de transição e fluviais do Oceano Atlântico tropical, o manatim (manati das Índias Ocidentais, peixe-boi ou iguaragua do Brasil colonial) era bastante valorizado. As fontes documentais e iconográficas dos séculos XVI e XVII mostram-nos que era usado como alimento, para fins medicinais, para produzir utensílios ou como animal de estimação, mas seu valor económico e simbólico foi igualmente dominante. A sobre-exploração contínua conduziu ao desaparecimento de muitas populações de manatins, os quais hoje enfrentam o risco de extinção. Pretendemos explorar do ponto de vista da história ambiental marinha o significado pragmático e simbólico dos manatins numa ligação próxima aos valores atribuídos aos rios e cursos de água. Esperamos também contribuir para colocar manatins e o seu ecossistema no centro de uma discussão sobre contextos e interações ambientais e socioculturais das sociedades indígenas e coloniais nas Américas do período moderno.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>The manatee (<italic>manati</italic> of the West Indies, also called <italic>manatim</italic> or <italic>iguaragua</italic> in colonial Brazil) was highly valued and presented a broad historical geographic distribution in coastal, transitional and fluvial areas of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Documental and iconographic sources of the 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> centuries show us that it was used as food and for medicinal purposes, to manufacture tools or even as a pet. Moreover, its economic and symbolic value was equally relevant. Continued overexploitation led to the disappearance of many populations of manatees, which are currently at the brinck of extinction. We will explore, from the point of view of marine environmental history, the pragmatic and symbolic meaning of the manatee in close connection to the importance given to rivers and watercourses. We also expect to contribute to place manatees and their ecosystem at the center of the discussion about the environmental and sociocultural contexts and interactions of indigenous and colonial societies in the Americas of the modern period.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>história ambiental marinha</kwd>
				<kwd>humanos e não humanos</kwd>
				<kwd>ecossistemas fluviais</kwd>
				<kwd>percepções na época moderna</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>marine environmental history</kwd>
				<kwd>humans and non-humans</kwd>
				<kwd>riverine ecosystems</kwd>
				<kwd>early modern age perceptions</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<award-group award-type="contract">
					<funding-source>FCT</funding-source>
					<award-id>UID/HIS/04666/2013</award-id>
				</award-group>
				<funding-statement>Este trabalho insere-se no projeto H2020 MSCA-RISE [777998 “CONCHA-The construction of early modern global Cities and oceanic networks in the Atlantic: An approach via Ocean’s Cultural Heritage”], na Cátedra UNESCO “The Oceans’ Cultural Heritage” (FCSH, Pessoas, manatins e o ambiente aquático na América moderna Universidade NOVA de Lisboa) e foi apoiado pelo projeto estratégico do CHAM (FCSH, NOVA, UAc) financiado pela FCT (UID/HIS/04666/2013). Este trabalho é também financiado por fundos nacionais por intermédio da FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., no âmbito da celebração do contrato-programa previsto nos números 4, 5 e 6 do art. 23 do D.L. nº 57/2016, de 29 de agosto, alterado pela Lei nº 57/2017, de 19 de julho.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="41"/>
				<page-count count="22"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<disp-quote>
			<p><italic>Rivers originate in one country, flow through others, and join the ocean. […] Animals walk past, fish swim by, and birds fly over customs lines and immigration offices, military check points and border patrols. Nature’s web defies containment. […] “Saving nature” means taking a step away from ideologies of conquest. But it is all too easy to reproduce the patterns of the past. C.S. Lewis presciently wrote of how some men use nature as an instrument of power over other men. […] Boundaries [do have] consequences for the lines between humans and the natural world. The histories we write have to face the challenges unfolding in the world we live in.</italic></p>
		</disp-quote>
		<disp-quote>
			<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Rangarajan, 2011</xref>, p. 27-30)</p>
		</disp-quote>
		<p>Os rios representam vida e destruição. Estão presentes em quase todas as paisagens e momentos da humanidade, seja física ou espiritualmente, e exercem enorme influência sobre as pessoas e sociedades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Os rios desafiam todas as fronteiras e todos os confinamentos, traçam o seu próprio caminho na história humana e na história dos seus ambientes. Mas apenas em teoria, porque os rios são um dos ambientes naturais mais sujeitos a constrangimentos físicos, barreiras e alterações (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Talvez sejam o mais humanizado de todos os sistemas naturais. Os sistemas fluviais apresentam, em termos ambientais, conteúdo geomorfológico diversificado e elevada biodiversidade associada. Vários tipos de <italic>habitats</italic> fazem parte dos sistemas fluviais, desde a zona de nascente às águas correntes e paradas, planícies aluviais, margens e vegetação ripícola, estuários, sapais e mangais, lagoas e uma grande diversidade de zonas costeiras de diferentes morfologias. Em termos antropogénicos, encontramos associados aos rios diversas obras de engenharia para fins energéticos, agrícolas e de transportes, como diques e barragens, condutas, canais e eclusas, viadutos ou pontes, para além do uso do leito do rio como meio de transporte de pessoas e mercadorias. Essas estruturas humanas limitam, alteram e condicionam os leitos dos rios e os <italic>habitats</italic> que lhes estão associados, afetando direta e indiretamente todas as formas de vida fluviais e costeiras (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>). Por exemplo, em determinadas situações, a construção de barragens - que inevitavelmente conduz à retenção de sedimentos a montante - e a extração de areia para fins comerciais em diversos troços de um rio podem ter repercussões negativas na faixa costeira a jusante: erosão (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">National Research Council, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ferreira; Matias, 2013</xref>). Em consequência, essas estruturas têm influência nefasta nos <italic>habitats</italic> salobros e marinhos (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Mangor, 2018</xref>).</p>
		<p>Ainda assim, os rios correm, movimentam-se, nascem e desaguam, são zonas de contacto entre sua nascente e foz que, ao criar ligações entre esses mesmos espaços, também criam barreiras físicas entre territórios naturais ou humanizados. São também sistemas que ligam zonas terrestres - áreas interiores dos espaços continentais ou insulares - a zonas costeiras, desaguando em mares e oceanos. Os rios são ainda fonte de vida, de água e de alimento, tanto para pessoas como para animais. Muitos dos seus troços constituem verdadeiras zonas de agregação de fauna terrestre e constituem <italic>habitat</italic> natural de inúmeras espécies de flora e fauna aquática ou de características anfíbias. Muitos desses ambientes ribeirinhos são ainda zonas propícias à agregação de comunidades humanas que aí estabelecem com facilidade áreas preferenciais de habitação, de caça e pesca, ou de trocas comerciais. Os rios fornecem muitos dos recursos necessários à sobrevivência da espécie humana (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>, p. 7-31). Em muitas sociedades, os rios não são apenas um local de criação de vida, tal como todo o ambiente aquático o é, mas também um local de passagem, de transporte e de continuidade. Globalmente, grandes civilizações se estabeleceram e desenvolveram nas bacias fluviais ou desembocaduras dos grandes rios do planeta. E estes serviram também de estrada para grandes conquistas, para o desenvolvimento e distribuição de tecnologia, para o transporte de pessoas, mercadorias, ideias e conhecimento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">McCully, 2001</xref>). Os rios simbolizam todo o poder da natureza, mas também o poder e riqueza das pessoas, e todas as possibilidades de reverência, inspiração e recreação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>, p. 7-31). </p>
		<p>Os rios são símbolos. As suas águas geradoras de vida e fertilidade são igualmente criadoras de mitos e lendas. As grandes bacias hidrográficas mundiais fertilizam terras e, desde os alvores da história, delas florescem as divindades que controlam esses espaços e que garantem a abundância (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">2008b</xref>). São inúmeras, e cruzam tempo e sociedades, as divindades - normalmente femininas - associadas aos rios, desde a mais pequena e singela ninfa aquática à mais poderosa mãe d’água. Não é por acaso que, em muitas partes do mundo, os rios são apelidados de “Mãe” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">McCully, 2001</xref>). Mas foram também para muitas culturas locais míticos e palco de rituais de passagem onde os guerreiros - homens - depositavam as suas armas em honra das divindades que habitavam as águas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bradley, 1990</xref>). A dualidade simbólica está desde sempre presente. Considerando ainda que as suas águas se movimentam, que criam um percurso, muitas vezes os rios indicam um caminho a percorrer física e geograficamente, mas também um caminho espiritual e simbólico entre o princípio (a nascente) e o fim (a foz). Esse simbolismo do percurso, das diferentes etapas da vida, reflete os próprios ritmos da natureza e das estações e, consequentemente, os ritmos da vida humana entre os momentos de nascimento e de morte.</p>
		<p>Ao unir num mesmo elemento a realidade natural e a humana, os rios são, em muitas culturas espalhadas pelo globo, considerados partes vivas e constituintes de um sistema único e integrado humano-natureza. São vários os animais dos rios, ou relacionados com os ambientes fluviais e de transição entre o rio e o mar, que têm associado um simbolismo próprio e fazem parte dos mitos, tradições e práticas rituais e simbólicas de muitas culturas humanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Loveland, 1976</xref>). Por esse motivo, ou porque existem mais historiadores a tratar temas ambientais, encontramos cada vez mais investigadores de história ambiental e de outras disciplinas das humanidades a estudar os rios em toda a sua multiplicidade (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Worster, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Os rios são hoje temas centrais em muitas problemáticas da história ambiental, da história cultural, da etnologia e da antropologia. Permitem abordar aspetos socioeconómicos das comunidades ribeirinhas, questões políticas dos territórios por onde passam, questões ambientais relacionadas com alterações ao longo do tempo, usos e práticas, impactos humanos, conservação de espécies e <italic>habitats</italic>, entre muitas outras, e ainda aspetos mitológicos, simbólicos e religiosos. É possível escrever a biografia de um rio, assim como a história da sua (i)materialidade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>), e ainda dos vários elementos naturais que o compõem - incluindo o mundo humano e o não humano e as suas intricadas interações.</p>
		<p>Neste trabalho, pretendemos analisar a presença dos rios e dos animais aquáticos na vida das sociedades da América colonial. Para tal, iremos percorrer um caminho ondulando entre as confluências e divergências do contacto humano com o rio e com alguns dos seus seres vivos, usando exemplos da relação histórica - real e simbólica - entre pessoas e manatins na América Central e do Sul, da época moderna. Tal como os rios fluem, e as suas águas ora se encontram, ora se afastam, também as relações entre pessoas e esses animais aquáticos flutuam e divergem, como veremos pelos exemplos que serão aqui explorados. Na verdade, os animais são, como o próprio rio, metáforas para os ritmos naturais e sociais de ordem e desordem. Muitos relacionam-se simbolicamente com o mundo natural ruidoso e disruptivo, mas alguns - como o manatim - são também, em algumas sociedades indígenas, desde sempre associados a um mundo cultural pleno de calma, silêncio, ordem social e solidariedade, e ainda ligados aos recursos da água e à prosperidade do ambiente (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Loveland, 1976</xref>). Por essas razões, o manatim é um elemento natural apropriado e um bom caso de estudo para discutir os múltiplos valores culturais e naturais tipicamente associados aos rios e aos seus animais. Usando fontes históricas (escritas e icnográficas) para as ilhas das Caraíbas e para zonas ribeirinhas da América Central e do Sul, ao longo dos séculos XVI e XVII, será possível debater o valor do rio enquanto elemento da paisagem e da vida diária e ainda reposicionar os manatins no seu contexto ambiental e histórico-cultural das sociedades indígenas e coloniais da época.</p>
		<sec>
			<title>AS AMÉRICAS, OS RIOS E OS MANATINS</title>
			<p>Mar Oceano e as terras que o limitam, nos alvores do período moderno. Nessa época, fosse na Europa, nas ilhas Atlânticas, na costa Ocidental Africana ou nas costas das Américas, as pessoas individualmente ou em grupo - enquanto sociedade - reagiam de formas muito semelhantes a determinados tipos de animais marinhos ou aquáticos com os quais lidavam diariamente ou ocasionalmente. Por exemplo, quase todas as sociedades humanas reagiam - e ainda reagem - com medo à proximidade de grandes tubarões. Esses grandes peixes eram tipicamente considerados perigosos, e deles as pessoas preferiam manter distância.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Mas eram também comumente pescados e consumidos um pouco por todo o mundo, e ainda caçados simplesmente por diversão ou medo. No entanto, as pessoas não tinham conhecimento da forma como outras sociedades, noutras partes do mundo, lidavam com esses animais. Não tinham como saber, já que não sabiam da existência dessas outras sociedades, embora o conceito de existirem pessoas com culturas distintas não fosse uma novidade em algumas partes do mundo. Nem tampouco sabiam da existência de toda uma panóplia de animais endémicos ou típicos de determinadas regiões biogeográficas que despertavam diferentes sentimentos e (re)ações nas pessoas.</p>
			<p>Américas, a partir dos finais do século XV. Foi esse um dos momentos na história humana em que diferentes sociedades entraram em contacto umas com as outras pela primeira vez. Num espaço e num tempo em que povos com diferentes formas de vida, diferentes visões e conhecimento do mundo, diferentes modos de contactar com a realidade natural em seu redor, se encontraram. Nessa zona do mundo, à chegada dos primeiros Europeus, os ecossistemas costeiros e aquáticos interiores - à semelhança de determinados ecossistemas terrestres - encontravam-se parcialmente alterados pelos ocupantes nativos das terras, os quais eram dependentes da exploração de determinados recursos. Essa era uma realidade tanto para ambientes terrestres como para os aquáticos, tanto para os recursos florísticos como para os faunísticos. No entanto, a chegada dos exploradores e colonizadores europeus veio alterar drasticamente e de forma irreversível a escala e a intensidade com que esses mesmos ambientes e recursos naturais eram explorados e usados. Muitas das atividades de exploração dos recursos aquáticos foram durante anos, aliás durante séculos, sustentadas, pelas necessidades de pescadores e caçadores locais, exploradores e mercadores estrangeiros, mas também pela biodiversidade e produtividade natural dos ecossistemas. Tal como muitas outras explorações na América colonial, essas atividades foram sustentadas, mas nunca foram sustentáveis (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cabral, 2015</xref>, p. 92-93). Tomemos, então, como exemplo os manatins. Vários autores que escreveram sobre a história natural e cultural dos manatins durante o século XX (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>) referem que Cristóvão Colombo foi o primeiro europeu a descrever esses animais tropicais. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand (1950</xref>) no seu “Ocaso de Sirenas” descreve textualmente as palavras de Colombo quando, no dia 9 de janeiro de 1493, este se cruzou com três formas de cor parda, diferentes de qualquer outro peixe conhecido, que emergiram à superfície das águas e que ele reconheceu como as sereias que já teria previamente encontrado nas costas da Guiné.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Não sendo tão bonitos no rosto como seria de esperar, o Almirante supôs, por essa razão, tratar-se de machos. Seriam, na verdade, manatins, esses “pomposos anfíbios” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, p. 13-14). De facto, os manatins seriam já conhecidos pelos europeus nas costas ocidentais de África, outrora uma região geográfica de abundante ocupação por esses animais. Da mesma forma, os dugongos - <italic>Dugong dugong</italic> -, que têm apenas uma distribuição no Oceano Índico e no Indo-Pacífico, seriam igualmente conhecidos por via dos contactos com a Ásia.</p>
			<p>As três espécies de manatins habitam águas tropicais costeiras e interiores de África, América Central e do Sul (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>): manatim Africano (<italic>Trichechus senegalensis</italic>), manatim das Índias Ocidentais (<italic>Trichechus manatus</italic>) e manatim do Amazonas (<italic>Trichechus inunguis</italic>). De semelhante aparência exterior, apenas a sua distribuição geográfica ajuda a distinguir qual a espécie em causa.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4"><sup>4</sup></xref> São historicamente conhecidos por peixe-mulher ou <italic>mami-wata</italic> na África Ocidental, <italic>manati</italic> nas Caraíbas e peixe-boi ou <italic>iguaragua</italic> na América do Sul. Em todas essas regiões teriam tido - e, nalguns casos, continuam a ter - valor económico e simbólico para as sociedades locais. Como resultado de uma exploração excessiva e continuada, assim como pela redução na disponibilidade e qualidade ambiental dos seus <italic>habitats</italic>, a distribuição geográfica atual dos manatins encontra-se bastante reduzida e fragmentada, e todas as espécies de manatins se encontram ameaçadas de extinção.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Embora os manatins (e também os dugongos) - animais grandes e com vida gregária - sejam os únicos mamíferos aquáticos herbívoros e estejam frequentemente à superfície da água, são também bastante elusivos e de difícil observação na natureza. Foi Lineu, nos finais do século XVIII, que descreveu a Ordem Sirenia para a ciência, de forma a nela incluir os manatins (género Trichechus), mas desde os alvores do século XVI são frequentemente encontrados e descritos por autores portugueses e castelhanos nas Américas.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Distribuição atual e histórica de T. manatus e T. inunguis. As zonas de distribuição atual foram obtidas com base na <italic>shapefile</italic> da distribuição de espécies do <italic>site</italic> da IUCN (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/red-list-training/iucnspatialresources">http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/red-list-training/iucnspatialresources</ext-link>) sobre mapa de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Zimmermann (1777</xref>). Esse mapa foi georreferenciado usando o <italic>software</italic> ESRI ARCGIS 10.5.1, mediante definição de pontos de controlo comuns no mapa sobre uma base ortorretificada e georreferenciada. A ocorrência histórica de manatins nas Américas indica uma visão macro da distribuição das espécies no período em causa (séculos XVI-XIX), obtida com base na leitura das fontes históricas e não de uma posição georreferenciada real.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>As descrições de manatins são recorrentes, muitas vezes semelhantes - se não mesmo cópias entre autores -, e o interesse ao longo dos séculos parece ser o mesmo: dar a conhecer o valor naturalista e económico de animais exóticos e desconhecidos na Europa.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Sendo difícil trazer o animal do seu <italic>habitat</italic> natural - vivo ou um espécime preservado -, a palavra e a ilustração servem de substituição e de mostruário para o público renascentista ávido de novidades (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Leite, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Papavero; Teixeira, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Há um certo peixe, a que chamamos boi marinho, os Índios o denominam de iguaraguá, frequente na Capitania do Espírito Santo e em outras localidades para o Norte, onde o frio ou não é tão rigoroso […] alimenta-se de ervas como o indicam as gramas mastigadas presas nas rochas banhadas por mangues. Excede ao boi na corpulência; é coberto de uma pele dura, assemelhando-se na cor à do elefante; tem junto aos peitos uns como dois braços com que nada; e embaixo deles tetas com que aleita os próprios filhos; tem a boca inteiramente semelhante à do boi. É excelente pera comer-se, não saberias porém discernir se deve ser considerado como carne ou antes como peixe; da sua gordura, que está inerente à pele e mormente em torno da cauda levada ao fogo faz-se um môlho, que pode bem comparar-se à manteiga e não sei se a excederá; o seu óleo serve pera temperar todas as comidas: todo o seu corpo é cheio de ossos sólidos e duríssimos, tais que podem fazer as vezes de marfim. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Anchieta, 1946</xref>, p. 11-12)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Vejamos ainda outra descrição, agora para as chamadas Índias Ocidentais (Culcs-de-sac, Ilha de S. Bartolomeu) já na transição do século XVII para o século XVIII:</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Eu cheguei lá a tempo de ver tirar à terra uma Lamentin fêmea que estes negros tinham arpoado. Eu tinha ouvido muitas coisas sobre o manatim, mas nunca tinha visto nenhum, porque ele se tornou bastante raro desde que a praia é habitada. Este peixe procura os lugares onde existem rios porque ele vem beber água doce uma vez ou duas cada dia, depois de ter comido uma certa erva que cresce no fundo do mar […] Os Espanhóis chamam-lhe Manate ou Manati, que quer dizer, peixe que tem mãos, enquanto nós chamamos Lamentin. Nós poderíamos, parece-me, chamar-lhe vaca marinha […] os nossos bucaneiros muitas vezes não têm outro recurso para viver que a pesca do manatim, que me asseguram que nem eles nem os Índios (de l’Ithme de Darien) que são os melhores pescadores do mundo, viram o manatim em terra. […] Considerou-se que este manatim pesava oitocentos quilos. Eu não o pesei, mas à vista penso que não estariam muito longe da verdade. Os pescadores também tinham levado o seu pequeno, tinha cerca de um metro de comprimento; nós o comemos ao jantar. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Labat, 1722</xref>, p. 200-203)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>A observação empírica da fauna local torna-se cada vez mais uma necessidade para explicar e justificar um mundo natural ainda pouco conhecido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>). Apesar do claro interesse vernacular, a sua entrada nos anais da ciência foi tardia, e apenas alguns entre os naturalistas enciclopedistas, como Ulisses Aldrovandi, os incluíram nos seus tratados (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Papavero; Teixeira, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>).Os manatins continuaram a ser descritos mesmo quando, a partir do século XVIII, começam a surgir indicações de que a sua abundância diminui.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7"><sup>7</sup></xref>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>O VALIOSO PEIXE-BOI E O NOBRE MANATIM, OU, OS DOIS LADOS DO MESMO ANIMAL</title>
			<p>Em todos os rios e zonas costeiras da América Central e do Sul os manatins foram, historicamente, usados como recurso de grande valor para as populações indígenas. Eram caçados usando diferentes técnicas, conforme a região geográfica e a comunidade indígena, provavelmente também em função do <italic>habitat</italic> e do tamanho de cada indivíduo, recorrendo a arpões (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>), redes, e até usando métodos menos conhecidos como as rémoras (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gudger, 1919</xref>, p. 301-311; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, p. 79-84). A chegada dos primeiros europeus às ilhas e costas das Américas veio aumentar o impacto das populações humanas sobre esses animais. Veio, igualmente, reiterar a perceção europeia de que o rio era um local de nascimento de vida, de diversidade e abundância e, nestas terras, aparentemente de uma abundância sem fim. Era um ambiente que estava à disposição de quem o tomasse e que, por ser inesgotável, poderia - e deveria - ser continuamente explorado. Os rios, cursos de água e lagoas, para além de servirem de entrada e saída dos territórios a explorar, foram rapidamente apropriados em todas as suas valências.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A pesca do manatim na Guiana Francesa (século XVIII), ilustrada na obra de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barrere (1743</xref>). Esta ilustração mostra uma técnica de caça dos manatins recorrendo ao uso de arpão manual, a qual era usada por indígenas de diferentes regiões das Américas.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Os manatins surgem descritos, e ocasionalmente ilustrados, nos tratados de história natural e história geral, nas cartas e relações de missionários, de quase todos os autores que à época escreveram sobre a América colonial, tanto a portuguesa como a castelhana. O seu aspeto geral, o seu tamanho, o facto de serem “peixes” que na verdade respiravam ar e tinham (e amamentavam) crias, os seus comportamentos, o seu <italic>habitat</italic>, a forma de os capturar, de os cozinhar, de obter e consumir a pedra do cérebro para curar os males de pedra dos rins, e muitos outros aspetos são repetidos vezes sem conta. Alguns autores escrevem com base na observação empírica, ou com base nos relatos de quem os viu com os próprios olhos - fossem indígenas ou europeus -, enquanto outros traduzem e copiam escritos anteriores (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Camenietzki; Zeron, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Leite, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>). Assim, a informação sobre animais e ambiente constrói-se paulatinamente.</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Há lá [nas Antilhas] um peixe que se chama monatim; é grande e de coiro, tem a cabeça e rosto de vaca, e também na carne parece muito a ela. […] É muito saboroso; tem umas pedras na cabeça que são proveitosas para a dor de pedra, e a fêmea tem tetas nos peitos com que cria os filhos que nascem vivos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Galvão, [1573]1980</xref>, p.41)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Carvajal (1504-1584) descreve na sua “Descoberta da Amazónia” como os manatins eram presenteados aos europeus que os aceitavam em troca de outros produtos. À medida que a sua expedição avançava pelo rio Maranhão, “todos os dias, os Índios vinham e traziam o que comer, como manatins e tartarugas, assim como outros tipos de peixes [propriamente ditos] em troca de bens que o Capitão lhes dava”; na verdade, “todo o território providenciava com sustento, comida que consistia em manatins e peixe…” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Heaton, 1934</xref>, p. 416-419). Os recém-chegados europeus usavam e consumiam a carne de manatim com mais ou menos escrúpulos,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8"><sup>8</sup></xref> mas rapidamente se aperceberam do valor desse animal, e os colonos passaram a usá-lo como um alimento comum (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 138). Também Cristóvão Acunha, ao referir-se aos peixes e às mais antigas pescarias do Amazonas, mencionava que se apanhavam peixes às mãos-cheias e que esse rio estava pleno de todo tipo de pescarias. Diz ainda que fazia parte dos hábitos alimentares dos indígenas e que “é o rei deste pescado, povoa todo o rio desde os seus princípios até que desagua no mar, no gosto só pelo nome é peixe, porque não há quem o coma que o não tenha por sazonada carne” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 131). Muito facilmente, pela sua abundância e facilidade na captura, ou pela observação e apropriação dos usos locais, o manatim se torna um alimento predileto dos europeus nas Américas nos séculos XVI e XVII. Dizia <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vasconcellos (1668</xref>, p. 36 e 280), para o Brasil colonial, “[que era] mui especial de tão inumerável quantidade de peixes boyes, &amp; tartarugas, que podiam aqueles moradores fazer tamanhos montes deles, &amp; delas” e que eram “os peixes boys mui ordinarios: cozem-se a maneira de carne, com couves ou arroz; &amp; podem enganar aos que o não sabem, parecendo-lhes vaca na vista, &amp; no sabor”. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Labat (1722</xref>, p. 206-207) referia na sua longa e detalhada descrição desse animal que “a gordura do manatim é muito boa; reduz-se facilmente a óleo que nunca rance e que pode ser empregue em diversos usos”.</p>
			<p>O animal fazia já parte da lista de alimentos de alta qualidade, cujos produtos eram usados para diversos fins, incluindo medicinais. Era também utilizado para outros propósitos; a pele de manatim era dura e de boa qualidade e usada para fazer escudos que serviam às populações indígenas em momentos de guerra. Os Europeus rapidamente os incorporaram como objeto corrente e os passaram a usar nas lutas contra os povos locais ou contra outros que viessem de fora (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Heaton, 1934</xref>, p. 190, 319; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 131). </p>
			<p>O manatim não era apenas grande, útil e valioso, era também magnífico. Gómara o inscreve nos anais da história de Matto e do seu “dono”, o cacique Caramatexi, chefe tribal dos Taíno.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9"><sup>9</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Manati é um peixe que não é do nosso mar, mas forma-se no mar e nos rios. […] É capturado, no entanto, apenas nos bancos dos rios, ou no meio das ervas: também é apanhado com redes quando é pequeno. O Cacique Caramatexi uma vez capturou um muito pequeno, e criou-o durante vinte e seis anos num lago chamado Guainabo, onde ele viveu. Este animal cresceu tão doce e amigável que o podíamos tomar por um dos golfinhos de quem os Antigos deram tantas notícias. Ele vinha à beira [do lago] quando era chamado por Matto, o que significa na língua Índia Magnífico [ou Nobre]. Vinha fora de água para comer em casa, ficava na beira do lago com as suas crias, e aparentava ter prazer quando ouvia alguém cantar, permitia que subissem [às suas costas] e transportava as pessoas de um lado ao outro do lago sem os deixar cair na água, ele era um grande passatempo para os Índios. Um Espanhol a viajar, querendo saber se ele tinha a pele tão dura como se dizia, chamou Matto, Matto, e quando ele se aproximou deu-lhe uma estocada que não foi boa para ele, ainda que não tenha entrado nele, e essa era a razão porque ele não vinha fora de água quando via homens barbudos e vestidos como os Cristãos, podíamos chamá-lo mas era em vão. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gómara, 1605</xref>, p. 41, 41v, 42)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Há toda uma sugestão poética nesta história, segundo a qual Matto torna-se simbólico para a história de um império: “[es] el más calificado testigo que, en nombre de la fauna marina, vió y convivió aquellos sucesos decisivos para la humanidade: el hallazgo y la conquista de América” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, p. 40-41).</p>
			<p>Na obra de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Philoponus (1621</xref>, p. 59-60) surge uma ilustração do manatim de Gómara e a menção de que o Rei da ilha tinha um grande peixe, ou Baleia, chamado <italic>Manatem</italic>, que tem cabeça de boi, olhos pequenos, é coberto de couro e tem poucos pelos. Na imagem sobressai a evidência do poder imperialista sobre a natureza tropical e sobre os seus habitantes, mas também duma relação de dualidade que as pessoas, em geral, têm com os animais do seu meio circundante. Nessa ilustração (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>) vemos em primeiro plano Matto a transportar as pessoas no lago, mas no fundo vislumbramos outra embarcação com dois caçadores/pescadores indígenas que caçam uma tartaruga e outro grande animal marinho - que não sabemos dizer com clareza se é um peixe, um cetáceo, ou mesmo outro manatim. Na margem direita homens em trajes europeus observam enquanto outro (um jovem, talvez) empenha um arco e flecha na direção de Matto ao lado de um homem indígena também armado de arco e flecha, mas com esta desarmada.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f3">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Representação, na obra de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Philoponus (1621</xref>), da história de Gómara sobre o manatim domesticado pelo cacique Caramatexi, que transportava membros da tribo entre as duas margens da lagoa; numa das margens, europeus observam a cena.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf3.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Neste trabalho, consideramos que esse manatim - tenha ou não existido conforme o descrevem<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10"><sup>10</sup></xref> - é simbólico para a história de um ecossistema natural e das relações entre pessoas e animais. Uma relação paradoxal de apreciação estética e emocional, e de uso utilitário e comercial, a qual não encontra facilmente um ponto de equilíbrio.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>RELAÇÕES HISTÓRICAS ENTRE HUMANOS E O MUNDO NÃO HUMANO</title>
			<disp-quote>
				<p><italic>Assim aconteceu que o Rio Hatibonico cresceu tanto que saiu das suas margens e entrou no Lago Guainabo, o que deu ao bom manatim Matto [uma oportunidade] de se retirar para o mar de onde tinha vindo, o que deixou Caramatexi e seus vassalos muito infelizes.</italic></p>
			</disp-quote>
			<disp-quote>
				<p><italic>(</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><italic>Gómara, 2008</italic></xref><italic>, p. 68)</italic></p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Caramatexi, por muito que o desejasse, não conseguiu manter o manatim de estimação para sempre na lagoa sob a sua alçada. A natureza sobrepôs-se à vontade do cacique e o manatim regressou ao seu ambiente natural. Como já mencionado, essa história surge na obra de Gómara que, para descrever algumas das características e virtudes dos manatins, se inspirou em Oviedo. Gómara foi posteriormente traduzido por vários outros autores, nomeadamente por Laet, ainda que este tenha excluído da sua descrição a história do manatim Matto, provavelmente por não a considerar fidedigna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barrera-Osorio, 2012</xref>, p. 326-327). Na verdade, muito da informação observada e descrita sobre manatins e outros animais aquáticos apenas parcialmente passou para os círculos europeus da história e filosofia natural modernas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>), fosse por opção do tradutor ou escolha do autor, por falta de acesso a algumas publicações, ou por incongruências na descrição à qual não se atribuía veracidade. Independentemente do motivo, muito ficou por contar e conhecer sobre a fauna tropical aquática das Américas, e só recentemente alguma dessa informação começou a ser recuperada pela mais recente historiografia em história moderna da história natural ou em história ambiental (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brito, 2016</xref>). Matto voltou a surgir na obra “Jardín de Flores Curiosas” de Torquemada, segundo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand (1950</xref>, p. 28, 38-41), um historiador particularmente apaixonado pelo inverossímil e pelo insólito.</p>
			<p>Inverossímil para alguns autores, credível para outros, a história do manatim domesticado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>) indica que as pessoas daquela tribo viam no espírito pacífico de Matto o refinado cumprimento das melhores regras de conduta.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Ele torna-se, à semelhança do golfinho que transportou o grego Arion, uma figura digna de entrar nas fábulas e epopeias humanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, p. 30). Mostra-nos como pessoas de diferentes origens culturais interagiam de formas distintas com o animal, confrontado o indígena com o europeu, e colocando neste último uma das causas para o desaparecimento do animal do seio da feliz comunidade “humana-animal” em que vivia.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Ilustração de Elvira Gascon, na obra de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand (1950</xref>), representando a cena do magnífico manatim a transportar pessoas da tribo do cacique Caramatexi.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf4.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Porém, mais do que uma romantização do ameríndio e das suas relações com a natureza, esse relato parece mostrar-nos que a domesticação da vida natural raramente é conseguida ou, pelo menos, nunca na totalidade. Essa tentativa humana de controlo é ainda mais difícil com animais aquáticos que vivem num ambiente tridimensional e muito diferente da realidade terrestre. Esses animais migram, deslocam-se, escondem-se, tornam-se mais elusivos, alteram comportamentos e podem até mudar a sua zona de ocupação. Em consequência dessas mudanças - muitas vezes impostas pela presença humana -, as sociedades dependentes de certos tipos de animais podem deslocar-se de acordo com essas alterações mais ou menos naturais. Os ecossistemas são redes complexas que envolvem todos os seres que nele habitam e dele dependem, assim como todas as ligações entre si. E essa teia de vida não conhece barreiras, mesmo incluindo humanos que historicamente se organizam por padrões de vida limitados por Estados-nação e por todo tipo de fronteiras - físicas, mentais e epistemológicas - que lhes são impostas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Rangarajan, 2011</xref>, p. 27-30).</p>
			<p>Os manatins mantiveram o seu papel híbrido - pragmático e simbólico - nos rios e águas costeiras onde viviam, e uma relação de grande proximidade com os humanos. Servem, por esses motivos, como caso de estudo a ser explorado, ficando ainda patente o efeito da agência da natureza, neste caso, a agência das águas dos rios<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12"><sup>12</sup></xref> e dos manatins sobre a vida e algumas das atividades humanas. Conhecendo os ritmos próprios da natureza, seria possível para as pessoas adaptar-se e utilizá-los em seu proveito. Não conhecendo, ou não compreendendo os acontecimentos naturais, não restava outra possibilidade que não se sujeitar a eles. Neste caso, o que o rio trazia, o rio levava de volta.</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Estes peixes [manatins] pela maior parte se acham em alguns rios, ou baías desta costa [Santa Cruz, Brasil], principalmente onde algum ribeiro ou regato se mete na água salgada são mais certos: porque botam o focinho de fora e pacem as ervas que se criam em semelhantes partes e também comem as folhas de umas árvores a que chamam mangues, de que há grande quantidade ao longo dos mesmos rios. Os moradores da terra os matam com arpões e também em pesqueiras costumam tomar alguns, porque vem com a enchente da maré aos tais lugares e com a vazante se tornam a ir para o mar de onde vieram. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Gândavo, [1550-1557]1980</xref>, cap. 8)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Vistos como um recurso alimentar e medicinal, como matéria-prima para utensílios, como elemento religioso ou mágico, até como amigo ou animal de estimação, os manatins mantiveram ativa a sua agência no decorrer de todo o seu percurso histórico de interações com as sociedades indígenas e coloniais. A sua presença, tal como a de todos os outros elementos não humanos deste mundo tropical, comum na vida diária de tribos indígenas das Caraíbas e América do Sul, foi incorporada na vida dos europeus localmente, mas também na Europa. Tal acontecia mediante contacto direto e conhecimento empírico, ou por via de comunicações económicas ou científicas transatlânticas que faziam a informação chegar à Europa. O estabelecimento das relações humanas - as existentes e as que se formaram a partir da época moderna - com a natureza dessa região foi-se desenvolvendo não em total oposição, mas numa ligação próxima entre as pessoas e as outras espécies (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cabral, 2015</xref>, p. 104-105). Nesse contexto, os sistemas aquáticos podem desvendar momentos de protagonismo de povos indígenas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Almeida; Kater, 2017</xref>) nas Américas na época pré-colombiana e moderna, bem como situações de protagonismo dos próprios animais.</p>
			<p>Os rios representam fisicamente, mas também metaforicamente, sistemas de confluência nas interações entre pessoas diferentes, e entre pessoas e animais, ou ainda, num sentido mais lato, entre pessoas e a natureza. São verdadeiras zonas de agregação - de pessoas, de animais, de recursos e de possibilidades. São ainda vias de comunicação, zonas de viagem e conexão entre partes geográficas, e constituem um modo de transferência e de movimento de pessoas e de elementos naturais. Mas, tal como a maioria das situações de convergência entre humanos e o mundo não humano (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Denning, 1980</xref>), verificam-se situações de divergência entre essas realidades ambivalentes. É algo comum a muitos sistemas ecológicos e humanos oceânicos, costeiros e fluviais espalhados pelo mundo, uma história de contradição na forma como as pessoas se relacionam e utilizam esses ecossistemas variados e plurais. Os rios, assim como outros elementos monumentais das paisagens naturais - ilhas (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Denning, 1980</xref>), cascatas (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Almeida; Kater, 2017</xref>), zonas costeiras, serras e florestas (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vadjunec et al., 2012</xref>) -, são cruzamentos espaciais que formam pontos de contacto e zonas de aglomeração de histórias e de construção da história.</p>
			<p>Há assim uma história que não é apenas azul mas também castanha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Gillis; Torma, 2015</xref>, p. 1-3), porque inclui mar, rio e zonas de transição. É uma história ambiental marinha que contribui para uma apreensão e compreensão integrada dos sistemas ecológicos e humanos ao longo do tempo e em diferentes contextos históricos e culturais. Ainda que esta história não deixe suficientes vestígios escritos ou materiais, é possível reconstruí-la com ajuda de metodologias das diferentes disciplinas das humanidades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Gillis; Torma, 2015</xref>). Esses mesmos autores citam no fim do seu capítulo (p. 11) David <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Helvarg (2001</xref>, p. 245): “we love the ocean, we use the ocean, but we don’t think enough about the ocean”. Da mesma forma não pensamos o suficiente sobre os rios, as águas de transição, as zonas costeiras, nem tampouco sobre os manatins, as tartarugas, os tubarões e toda uma miríade de elementos de fauna e flora que habitam esses ecossistemas. Ecossistemas e elementos vivos dos quais dependemos e aos quais nos habituámos. O processo em prol de uma vida humana sustentável na Terra é agora uma inevitabilidade, e o processo histórico de trazer à tona da água esses animais, agentes ativos na criação do nosso passado comum, será um dos suportes para a nossa vida futura neste planeta.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>A título de exemplo, uma passagem que remete para a ferocidade dos tubarões e as relações das pessoas com esse peixe nas Índias Ocidentais do século XVIII: “No mesmo dia os nossos marinheiros tomaram um tubarão que por dois ou três dias não tinha saído de perto do navio; foi difícil coloca-lo a bordo, ele tinha mais de dez pés de comprimento; é o mesmo peixe que chamamos em la Rochelle um cão do mar, mas esses que eu tinha visto não tinham mais de dois pés de comprido […] ele está armado de três filas de dentes fortes, agudos e afiados; é um animal voraz, ousado e perigoso” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">LABAT, 1722</xref>, p. 45-46). Os tubarões, tal como os manatins, são (re)significados de forma semelhante por diferentes naturalistas, humanistas e missionários, mesmo que com bastante tempo de diferença entre as suas publicações. O medo é uma constante no caso dos tubarões. A curiosidade naturalista, o interesse utilitário e o valor comercial aparecem de modo transversal nas passagens descritivas sobre manatins. O olhar europeu sobre esses animais tropicais parece ser igual.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>Transcrição da passagem de Cristóvão Colombo, conforme aparece no livro de José Durand (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">DURAND, 1950</xref>, p. 22): “El día pasado, cuando el Almirante iba al río del Oro, dijo que vido três serenas que salieron bien alto de la mar, pero no eran tan hermosas como laspintan, que en alguna manera tenían forma de hombre en la cara. Dijo también que otras veces vido algunas en Guinea, en la costa de Manegueta”.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>Apenas no Brasil coincidem as áreas de distribuição das espécies <italic>T. manatus</italic> and <italic>T. inunguis</italic>; a primeira ocorre em meio costeiro, podendo entrar em embocaduras de rio, mangais e estuários, e a segunda é exclusivamente de águas interiores, ocorrendo no rio Amazonas e possivelmente também no Orinoco. Em tempos passados, de maior abundância de populações e indivíduos, é muito provável que existissem áreas de sobreposição na distribuição de ambas as espécies nas zonas de transição entre os rios e o mar.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2017-3, http://www.iucnredlist.org, downloaded on 27 June 2018.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>As descrições do manatim e outras espécies de mamíferos marinhos e animais aquáticos revelam muito do conhecimento empírico sobre a natureza tropical e a fauna local. No entanto, eram muitas vezes confundidas ou usadas como a origem para crenças locais; deles surgiam monstros aquáticos, homens-marinhos, seres híbridos e diversas mitologias indígenas aquáticas. As narrativas dos cronistas para a América Portuguesa são diversas (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">CAMENIETZKI; ZERON, 2000</xref>), e vários autores se têm dedicado à discussão dessas temáticas a partir de múltiplas perspetivas (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">CAMENIETZKI; ZERON, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">LEITE, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">PAPAVERO; TEIXEIRA, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">BRITO, 2018</xref>).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>São vários os documentos e as fontes que dão conta de uma diminuição significativa do número de manatins no Brasil colonial, a partir de meados do século XVIII. Ver: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">VIEIRA; BRITO, 2017</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>O padre José de Acosta referia que aceitava, mas não sem dúvidas, consumir a carne de manatim às sextas-feiras porque esse era um verdadeiro animal que tinha crias e as amamentava ainda que vivesse dentro de água. Era normalmente consumido como peixe nas ilhas de Cuba, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico e Jamaica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">HEATON, 1934</xref>, p. 329): “Nas ilhas que chamam de Barlavento […] há aquilo que chamam manatim, um estranho género de pescado, se se pode chamar pescado a um animal que pare os seus filhos vivos, e tem tetas, e com leite os cria, e alimenta-se de erva no campo; mas com efeito habita de ordinário a água, e por isso o comem por pescado, ainda que no Santo Domingo quando o comi numa sexta-feira, quase tinha escrúpulos, não tanto pelo feito, como porque na cor e sabor não parecia senão com talhadas de vitela” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">ACOSTA, 1590</xref>, p. 7).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>Os Taíno - considerados pescadores exímios - eram, no momento da chegada dos Europeus às Caraíbas no fim do século XV, um dos povos indígenas que ocupavam várias das ilhas dessa região. À chegada de Cristóvão Colombo, em 1492, existiam na ilha denominada Hispaniola cinco chefias e territórios Taíno, cada qual liderado por um cacique (chefe).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn10">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>Marília Lopes usa esta mesma imagem para ilustrar o conceito de fantasia associada às descobertas e explorações europeias sobre o mundo natural das Américas: “Os eruditos europeus alegram-se ao ouvir contar sobre as novidades das terras recentemente achadas: animais, peixes, aves, árvores, plantas e frutos nunca vistos. […] [Mas] A arte gráfica recorre também a uma outra linguagem: a da fantasia. Seguindo os relatos de seres fantásticos e extraordinários dos Livros de Maravilhas, os artistas dão lugar à estranheza e novidade desenhando, por exemplo, um peixe, ou um anfíbio, de enormes dimensões capaz de transportar cinco homens no seu dorso” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">LOPES, 1998</xref>, p. 74-75).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn11">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>A palavra usada pelo autor neste contexto é “urbanidad”, no sentido em que se refere a um grupo de pessoas, ou a uma urbe, vivendo num ambiente comum de convivência e respeito mútuo.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn12">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>Agência do rio (ou do animal) funciona aqui na perspetiva mais elástica do conceito que Peter Coates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">COATES, 2013</xref>, p. 7-31) nos apresenta, aquela em que existe uma agência não reflexiva que emerge da capacidade de produzir ou condicionar determinados resultados. Na visão desse autor, na qual nos revimos, os atores envolvidos não têm que ser racionais, nem tampouco inteligentes, apenas efetivos. Mais, diz-nos esse autor, se possuir vontade, lógica e um sentido de direção podem ser considerados atributos essenciais de agência, então, também nessa perspetiva os rios se qualificam como agentes ativos.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>1</label>
				<p>Este trabalho foi desenvolvido numa estadia na John Carter Brown Library at Brown University (2018) como investigadora convidada, pelo que agradeço ao seu diretor Neil Safier, ao staff e aos colegas que me proporcionaram um ambiente de partilha único para o desenvolvimento da minha pesquisa. Agradeço ainda a Celso Aleixo Pinto, APA - Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente, I.P., pela sua colaboração com a Linha de Investigação “História Ambiental e o Mar” do CHAM - Centro de Humanidades (NOVA FCSH) no âmbito do tratamento e análise dos dados geográficos (mapa da Figura 1). Agradeço igualmente a Catarina Garcia, Nina Vieira, Patrícia Carvalho e Carla A. Pinto, colegas do CHAM pelo apoio e dedicação ao trabalho de investigação sobre o mar na época moderna. Este trabalho insere-se no projeto H2020 MSCA-RISE [777998 “CONCHA-The construction of early modern global Cities and oceanic networks in the Atlantic: An approach via Ocean’s Cultural Heritage”], na Cátedra UNESCO “The Oceans’ Cultural Heritage” (FCSH, Pessoas, manatins e o ambiente aquático na América moderna Universidade NOVA de Lisboa) e foi apoiado pelo projeto estratégico do CHAM (FCSH, NOVA, UAc) financiado pela FCT (UID/HIS/04666/2013). Este trabalho é também financiado por fundos nacionais por intermédio da FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., no âmbito da celebração do contrato-programa previsto nos números 4, 5 e 6 do art. 23 do D.L. nº 57/2016, de 29 de agosto, alterado pela Lei nº 57/2017, de 19 de julho.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>People, Manatees and the Aquatic Environment in Early Modern Americas: Confluence and Divergence in the Historical Relationships Between Humans and Animals</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7895-0784</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Brito</surname>
						<given-names>Cristina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">*</xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original"> Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Centro de Humanidades (CHAM), Lisboa, Portugal. cbrito@fcsh.unl.pt</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>The manatee (<italic>manati</italic> of the West Indies, also called <italic>manatim</italic> or <italic>iguaragua</italic> in colonial Brazil) was highly valued and presented a broad historical geographic distribution in coastal, transitional and fluvial areas of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Documental and iconographic sources of the 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> centuries show us that it was used as food and for medicinal purposes, to manufacture tools or even as a pet. Moreover, its economic and symbolic value was equally relevant. Continued overexploitation led to the disappearance of many populations of manatees, which are currently at the brinck of extinction. We will explore, from the point of view of marine environmental history, the pragmatic and symbolic meaning of the manatee in close connection to the importance given to rivers and watercourses. We also expect to contribute to place manatees and their ecosystem at the center of the discussion about the environmental and sociocultural contexts and interactions of indigenous and colonial societies in the Americas of the modern period.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>marine environmental history</kwd>
				<kwd>humans and non-humans</kwd>
				<kwd>riverine ecosystems</kwd>
				<kwd>early modern age perceptions</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<disp-quote>
				<p><italic>Rivers originate in one country, flow through others, and join the ocean. […] Animals walk past, fish swim by, and birds fly over customs lines and immigration offices, military check points and border patrols. Nature’s web defies containment. […] “Saving nature” means taking a step away from ideologies of conquest. But it is all too easy to reproduce the patterns of the past. C.S. Lewis presciently wrote of how some men use nature as an instrument of power over other men. […] Boundaries [do have] consequences for the lines between humans and the natural world. The histories we write have to face the challenges unfolding in the world we live in.</italic></p>
			</disp-quote>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Rangarajan, 2011</xref>, pp. 27-30)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Rivers represent life and destruction. They are present in most landscapes and times of humanity, whether physically or spiritually, and exert an enormous influence on people and societies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Rivers defy boundaries and confinements, tracing their own path in human history and the one of its environments. But just in theory, as rivers are a natural environment very vulnerable to physical constraints, barriers and changes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Perhaps they are the most humanised of all natural systems. River systems present, in environmental terms, diverse geomorphological features and high associated biodiversity. River systems encompass several types of habitats, from their spring to running and standing waters; alluvial plains; riparian banks and vegetation; estuaries; marshes and mangroves; lagoons and a great diversity of coastal areas with different morphologies. In anthropogenic terms, rivers are connected with a broad variety of engineering works for energy, agricultural and transportation purposes, such as dams, ducts, channels and locks, viaducts or bridges. Additionally, river beds are used as a means of transportation for people and goods. These human structures limit, transform and condition the riverbeds and their associated habitats, affecting directly and indirectly all river and coastal life forms (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>). For instance, in given situations, dam construction - which inevitably leads to upstream sediment retention - and the extraction of sand for commercial purposes on several sections of a river may have a negative impact on the downstream coastal strip: erosion (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">National Research Council, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ferreira; Matias, 2013</xref>). As a consequence, these structures have an adverse effect in brackish and marine environments (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Mangor, 2018</xref>). </p>
			<p>Yet, rivers flow, move, are born and drain; they connect their springs and mouths, and also create physical barriers between natural and humanised territories. They are also systems linking different land areas - inland areas of continental or insular spaces - to coastal areas, flowing into seas and oceans. Rivers are likewise a source of life, water and food, for both people and animals. Many of their sections aggregate terrestrial fauna and constitute a natural habitat for numerous species of aquatic flora and fauna or amphibious animals. These riparian environments are often areas conducive to the aggregation of human communities that tend to prefer to settle, hunt, fish and trade there. Rivers provide many of the resources necessary for the survival of the human species (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>, pp. 7-31). In many societies, rivers are not only a place where life is created, like the whole aquatic environment, but also a space of passage, transportation and continuity. Globally, great civilizations have settled and developed in the river basins or mouths of the main rivers of the planet. And these were also roads that opened the way to great achievements, like the development and distribution of technology and the transportation of people, goods, ideas and knowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">McCully, 2001</xref>). Rivers symbolise the power of nature, but also the power and wealth of people, and all the possibilities of reverence, inspiration, and recreation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Coates, 2013</xref>, pp. 7-31).</p>
			<p>Rivers are symbols. Its waters generate life and fertility and are also creators of myths and legends. The world’s large hydrographic basins fertilise the lands and, since the dawn of history, the divinities that rule over these spaces flourish and grant abundance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">2008b</xref>). There are countless divinities, usually feminine, associated with rivers, from the smallest and simplest aquatic nymph to the most powerful mother of water. And they cross time and societies. It is not by chance that, in many parts of the world, rivers are called “Mother” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">McCully, 2001</xref>). For many cultures, rivers were also ritual and worship places, were male warriors celebrated their rites of passage and laid down their weapons in honour of the divinities that lived in the waters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bradley, 1990</xref>). The symbolic duality is ever-present. As their waters move, they create a path, thus rivers often indicate the way to go, physically and geographically, as well as a spiritual and symbolic path between their beginning (the spring) and end (the mouth). This symbolism of the journey and different stages of life reflects the very rhythms of nature and seasons and, consequently, the rhythms of human life between birth and death. </p>
			<p>Being a connecting element between natural and human realities, rivers are, in many world cultures, considered as living parts of a unique and integrated human-nature system. Several river animals, or animals related to the river environments and the transition between the river and the sea, bear their own symbolism and are part of myths, traditions and ritual and symbolic practices of many human cultures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Loveland, 1976</xref>). Thus, we find more and more researchers in environmental history and other humanities subjects studying the rivers in all their multiplicity. This is also due to the growing number of historians dealing with environmental issues (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Worster, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Mauch; Zeller, 2008</xref>). Rivers are currently central themes in many issues of environmental and cultural history, ethnology and anthropology. They allow addressing the socioeconomic aspects of the riverside communities, political issues of the territories they cross, environmental issues related to changes over time, uses and practices, human impacts, conservation of species and habitats, among many others, as well as mythological, symbolic and religious aspects. It is possible to write a river’s biography, just as the story of its (i)materiality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blackbourn, 2008a</xref>), as well as the one of its various elements - including the human and non-human worlds and their intricate interactions. </p>
			<p>In the present work, we intend to analyse the presence of rivers and aquatic animals in the life of colonial American societies. To this end, we will undulate in-between the confluences and divergences of human contact with the river and some of its living beings, using examples of the historical relationship, both real and symbolic, between people and manatees in Central and South America in modern age. Just as the rivers flow, and their waters meet and recede, so do people and these aquatic animals move closer and away, as we shall see from the following examples. Animals are, in fact, metaphors for the natural and social rhythms of order and disorder, just like the rivers. Many among them are symbolically related to the noisy and disruptive natural world. Yet, in several indigenous societies, others - like the manatee - are also related to a cultural world full of calm, silence, social order and solidarity, and connected to water resources and a prosperous environment (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Loveland, 1976</xref>). Thus, the manatee is an appropriate natural element and a good case study to discuss the multiple cultural and natural values typically associated with rivers and their animals. Using historical sources (documental and iconographic) for the Caribbean islands and riverine areas of Central and South America throughout the 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> centuries, it will be possible to discuss the value of the river as an element of the landscape and part of daily life. Additionally, we will be able to reposition the manatees in the environmental and historical-cultural context of the indigenous and colonial societies of that time.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>AMERICAS, RIVERS AND MANATEES</title>
				<p>The Sea Ocean and its limiting lands, at the dawn of the modern period… At that time, whether in Europe, the Atlantic Islands, the West African coast or the coasts of the Americas, people, individually or as a group, reacted in very similar ways to certain marine or aquatic animals they encountered daily or occasionally. For instance, almost all human societies reacted - and still react - with fear to the proximity of great sharks. These large fish were typically considered dangerous, and people preferred to keep them at a distance.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14"><sup>2</sup></xref> But they were also commonly caught and consumed all over the world, and hunt just for fun or fear. However, people were unaware of how other societies of the world dealt with such animals. They had no way of knowing, since they were not aware of the existence of these other societies, even if the concept of different cultures was not a novelty in some parts of the world. Nor did they know of the existence of a wide range of endemic or typical animals of certain biogeographical regions that aroused different feelings and (re) actions in people.</p>
				<p>Americas, from the late 15<sup>th</sup> century on ... This was one of the moments in human history when different societies came into contact with each other for the first time. A space and time in which people with various life forms, visions and knowledge of the world and divergent ways of contacting with the natural reality around them, met. When the first Europeans arrived there, coastal and inland aquatic ecosystems - like certain terrestrial ecosystems - were partially altered by the native land occupants, who were dependent on the exploitation of certain resources. This was a reality for both terrestrial and aquatic environments, flora and fauna. However, the arrival of the European explorers and settlers altered that scale dramatically and irreversibly, as well as the intensity of the exploitation of those environments and natural resources. Many of the exploiting activities of aquatic resources had been sustained for years and centuries by the needs of local fishermen and hunters, explorers and merchants, but also by the biodiversity and natural productivity of the ecosystems. Like many other exploitation activities in colonial America, they were sustained, but were never sustainable (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cabral, 2015</xref>, pp. 92-93). Let us take the manatees as an example. Several authors who wrote about the natural and cultural history of manatees during the 20<sup>th</sup> century (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>) reported that Christopher Columbus was the first European to describe these tropical animals. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand (1950</xref>), in his “Ocaso de Sirenas”, describes the words of Columbus when, on the 9<sup>th</sup> January 1493, he encountered three brown-coloured forms, different from any other known fish, that emerged on the surface of the waters and which he recognised as the mermaids he would have previously encountered on the coasts of Guinea.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15"><sup>3</sup></xref> As their face was not as handsome as he expected, the Admiral assumed they were males. These “pompous amphibians” should, in fact, have been manatees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, pp. 13-14). In fact, Europeans would already very likely have seen manatees on the western coasts of Africa, once a geographic region where they were abundant. Similarly, dugongs - <italic>Dugong dugong</italic> - which have only one distribution in the Indian Ocean and the Indo-Pacific, would also be known through contacts with Asia. </p>
				<p>The three species of manatees inhabit tropical coastal and inland waters of Africa, Central and South America (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>): African manatee (<italic>Trichechus senegalensis</italic>), West Indian manatee (<italic>Trichechus manatus</italic>) and Amazonian manatee (<italic>Trichechus inunguis</italic>). Displaying a similar appearance, they can only be distinguished by their geographical distribution.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16"><sup>4</sup></xref> They are historically known as woman-fish or <italic>mami-wata</italic> in West Africa, <italic>manati</italic> in the Caribbean and ox-fish or <italic>iguaragua</italic> in South America. In all these regions they would have and, in some cases, still have an economic and symbolic value for local societies. As a result of excessive and continued exploitation, as well as of the decrease and degradation of the environmental quality of their habitats, the current geographic distribution of manatees is greatly reduced and fragmented, and all species of manatees are threatened with extinction.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17"><sup>5</sup></xref> Although manatees (and dugongs) - which are large animals with gregarious life - are the only herbivorous aquatic mammals and are often on the surface of water, they are also quite elusive and difficult to observe in nature. Linnaeus described the Sirenia Order for scientific purposes for the first time, at the end of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, including the manatees (Genus Trichechus). But since early 16<sup>th</sup> century they are often to be found and described by Portuguese and Castilian authors in the Americas.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f5">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Current and historical distribution of T. manatus and T. inunguis. The current distribution zones were obtained based on the shapefile of the species distribution in the website of IUCN (http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/red-list-training/iucnspatialresources) on a map by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Zimmermann (1777</xref>). This map was georeferenced using ESRI ARCGIS 10.5.1 software, by defining common control points on the map on an orthorectified and georeferenced basis. The historical occurrence of manatees in the Americas indicates a macro view of the distribution of the species in the given period (16th-19th centuries), obtained from the reading of historical sources and not from a real geo-referenced position. </title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf5.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Descriptions of manatees are common, often similar - if not even copies between authors -, and their purpose over the centuries seems to remain the same: to disseminate the naturalistic and economic value of exotic and unknown animals in Europe.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18"><sup>6</sup></xref> Given the difficulty of taking the animal from its natural habitat - alive or as a preserved specimen -, words and illustrations served as a substitute and a showcase for the Renaissance public eager for news (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Leite, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Papavero; Teixeira, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>There is a certain fish, which we call the sea ox, the Indians say iguaraguá, common in the Captaincy of the Holy Spirit and in other places to the North, where the cold is not so rigorous […]; it feeds on herbs, according to the chewed grasses on the rocks bathed by the mangroves. It exceeds the ox in corpulence; is covered with a hard skin, resembling the colour of the elephant; next to the breasts it has something like two arms it uses to swim; and underneath them it has tits where their own children suck; its mouth is entirely like that of the ox. It is excellent for eating, you would not be able to tell whether it is meat or fish; from its fat, which is inside the skin and especially around the tail, when taken to the fire, is made a sauce, which may well be compared to butter and maybe it is even better; this oil is great to season all kinds of food: its whole body is full of solid and very hard bones, that may even replace ivory. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Anchieta, 1946</xref>, pp. 11-12)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Let us see yet another description, this one for the so-called Western Indies (Culcs-de-sac, Island of St. Bartholomew) already in the transition from the 17<sup>th</sup> to the 18<sup>th</sup> century:</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>I got there in time to see a female <italic>Lamentin</italic>, which these blacks had harpooned, being thrown to the shore. I had heard many things about the manatee, but had never seen any, as it became quite rare since the beach is inhabited. This fish searches for places with rivers because it comes to drink fresh water once or twice each day, after having eaten a certain herb that grows in the bottom of the sea […] The Spaniards call it <italic>Manate</italic> or <italic>Manati</italic>, that is to say, a fish that has hands, while we call it <italic>Lamentin</italic>. We could, it seems to me, call it sea cow […] Our buccaneers often have no other recourse to live on than fishing manatees, which assures me that neither they nor the Indians (of l’Ithme de Darien), which are the best fishermen in the world, have seen the manatee on land. [...] It was considered that this manatee weighed eight hundred pounds. I did not weigh it, but I think it is likely to be true. The fishermen had also taken its little one that was about a meter long; we had it for dinner. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Labat, 1722</xref>, pp. 200-203)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>The necessity to explain and justify a natural world still little known increases the need for the empirical observation of the local fauna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>). Despite a clear vernacular interest, their entry into the annals of science was late, and only a few among encyclopaedist naturalists, such as Ulysses Aldrovandi, included them in their treatises (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Papavero, Teixeira, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>). Manatees kept being described even when, from the 18<sup>th</sup> century on, there are indications referring to their decrease.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19"><sup>7</sup></xref>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>VALUABLE OX-FISH AND NOBLE MANATEE, OR THE TWO SIDES OF THE SAME ANIMAL</title>
				<p>In every river and coastal area of Central and South America, manatees have historically been used as a valuable resource for indigenous populations. They resorted to different techniques, depending on the geographic region and the indigenous community, probably also according to the habitat and size of each individual. They used harpoons (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>), nets, and even used less known methods such as remoras (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Gudger, 1919</xref>, pp. 301-311; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, pp. 79-84). The arrival of the first Europeans to the islands and coasts of the Americas increased the impact of human populations on these animals. It also reinforced the European understanding of rivers as a birthplace of life, diversity and abundance even more so in these lands, where this abundance was apparently endless. This environment was available to anybody and, seemingly inexhaustible, could - and should - be continuously exploited. Rivers, watercourses and lagoons, besides being a way in and out of the territories to be explored, were quickly appropriated in all their valences.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f6">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Fishing manatees in French Guiana (18th century), illustrated in the work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Barrere (1743</xref>). This illustration shows a hunting technique of manatees using a hand harpoon, which was used by indigenous people from different regions of the Americas.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf6.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Manatees are described, and occasionally illustrated, in treatises of natural and general history by the majority of authors writing about colonial America, both Portuguese and Castilian, as well as in missionaries’ letters and accounts. Their general appearance and size, the fact of them being “fish” that actually breathed air and had (and breastfed) calves, their behaviour, their habitat, the ways of capturing them, of cooking them, of obtaining and consuming the stone of their brain to heal stone and kidneys maladies and many other aspects were repeated over and over again. Some writers wrote upon empirical observation, or accounts of those who saw them with their own eyes - whether Amerindian or European -, while others translated and copied earlier writings (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Camenietzki; Zeron, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Leite, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>). Thus, information on animals and the environment built up gradually.</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>There is [in the Antilles] a fish called a manatee; is big and has a cow’s head and face, and also in the flesh it looks a lot like it. […] It is very tasty; it has stones on the head that are useful for the stone pain, and the female has tits in the breasts with which she creates the children who are born alive. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Galvão, [1573]1980</xref>, p. 41)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Carvajal (1504-1584) describes in his “Discovery of Amazónia” how the manatees were offered to Europeans who accepted them in exchange for other products. As their expedition progressed along the Maranhão River, “Indians came every day and brought food, such as manatees and turtles, as well as other kinds of fish [actual fish] in exchange for goods the Captain gave them”; in fact, “the whole territory provided sustenance, food consisting of manatins and fish ...” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Heaton, 1934</xref>, pp. 416-419). The European newcomers used and consumed manatee meat with more or less scruples,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20"><sup>8</sup></xref> but soon realised the value of this animal, and the settlers began to use it as a common food (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 138). Cristóvão Acunha, referring to fish and the oldest fisheries in the Amazon, also mentioned that the fishermen collected fish abundantly in this river and that there were all sorts of fish. He also told that it was part of the dietary habits of the Indians and that “it is the king of fish, populating the whole river from where it begins until it flows into the sea, and only in the name it is fish, as everyone who eats it, thinks it is seasoned meat” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 131). The manatee became very easily a favourite food for Europeans in the Americas in the 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> centuries, given its abundance and ease of capture, as well as the observation and appropriation of local uses. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Vasconcellos (1668</xref>, p. 36 and 280) referred, regarding colonial Brazil colonial, that “[it was] very special the innumerable quantity of ox-fish and turtles, so that the people could make piles and piles with them” and that “ox-fish are very common: they are cooked like meat, with cabbage or rice and may cheat those who do not know, as it looks and tastes like beef”. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Labat (1722</xref>, pp. 206-207) referred in his long and detailed description of the animal that “the manatee’s fat is very good; it turns easily into an oil that does not become rancid and may be used for several purposes”.</p>
				<p>The animal was already part of the list of high quality food, whose products were used for various purposes, including medicinal purposes. It was also used for other purposes; the manatee skin was hard and of good quality and used to make shields that served the indigenous populations in times of war. Europeans quickly incorporated them as a common object and used them in the struggles against local people or against others coming from outside (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Heaton, 1934</xref>, p. 190, 319; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Veríssimo, 1970</xref>, p. 131). </p>
				<p>The manatee was big, useful and valuable, but also magnificent. Gómara inscribes it in the annals of the story of Matto and his “owner”, the tribal chief Caramatexi, of the Taíno’s tribe.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21"><sup>9</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>The manatee is a fish, which is not from our sea, but grows in the sea and rivers. [...] It is only captured, however, in the riverbanks or in the middle of the herbs: it is also caught with nets when small. Chief Caramatexi once captured a very small one, and raised him for twenty-six years in a lake called Guainabo, where he lived. This animal grew so sweet and friendly that we could take it for one of the dolphins the Ancients talked about. He came to the [lake] shore when people called it by the name Matto, which means in the Indian language Grand [or Noble]. He came out of the water to eat at home, stood by the shore with his young, and seemed to enjoy when it heard someone singing, let them climb [on his back] and carried people across the lake without letting them fall into the water. It was a great pastime for the Indians. A travelling Spaniard, wanting to know if its skin was as hard as it was said, called Matto, Matto and, when it approached, hit it, which did not feel good, even though it did not wound it, and that is why it did not come out of the water when he saw men bearded and clothed like the Christians, we could call it but it was in vain. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Gómara, 1605</xref>, p. 41, 41v, 42)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>There is a poetic suggestion in this story, according to which Matto serves as a symbol for the history of an empire: “[it is] the most qualified witness who, as a representative of the marine fauna, observed and lived those decisive events for humanity: the discovery and conquest of America” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, pp. 40-41).</p>
				<p>In <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Philoponus’s work (1621</xref>, pp. 59-60) there is an illustration of Gómara’s manatee and it is mentioned that the island’s King had a large fish, or Whale, called <italic>Manatem</italic>, which had an ox’s head, small eyes, was covered with leather and had few hairs. In the image, the imperialist power over tropical nature and its inhabitants is evident, as well as the duality usually present in people’s relationship with the animals in their surroundings. In this illustration (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>) we see Matto in foreground transporting people on the lake. Yet, in the background we see another boat with two Indian hunters or fishermen hunting a turtle and another large sea animal - which we cannot clearly see; it may be a fish, a cetacean, or even another manatee. On the right bank, men in European outfits observe. Meanwhile, another person (possibly a young man) wields a bow and arrow in the direction of Matto; next to him stands an Indian man, also carrying a bow and arrow, but disarmed. </p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f7">
						<label>Figure 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Representation, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Philoponus’ work (1621</xref>), of Gómara’s story about the manatee, tamed by the Caramatexi chief, who carried members of the tribe between the two banks of the lagoon; on one of the banks, Europeans watch the scene.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf7.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>In this work, we consider that this manatee - whether it existed or not as described<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn22"><sup>10</sup></xref> - is symbolic of the history of a natural ecosystem and the relationships between people and animals. It highlights the paradoxical relation of both an aesthetic and emotional appreciation, and a utilitarian and commercial use which does not easily find a point of balance. </p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>HISTORICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE NON-HUMAN WORLD</title>
				<disp-quote>
					<p><italic>So it was that the Hatibonico River grew so much that it surpassed its banks and entered Lake Guainabo, which gave the good manatee Matto [an opportunity] to flee to the sea from where he had come, which left Caramatexi and his vassals very unhappy.</italic></p>
				</disp-quote>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Gómara, 2008</xref>, p. 68)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Caramatexi, no matter how much he wished, could not keep his pet manatee forever in the pond under his control. Nature overcame the will of the tribal chief, and the manatee returned to its natural environment. As mentioned before, this story appears in the work of Gómara who, to describe some of the characteristics and virtues of the manatees, took inspiration from Oviedo. Several authors, namely Laet, later translated Gómara, although he did not include Matto’s history, probably because he did not consider it to be trustworthy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barrera-Osorio, 2012</xref>, pp. 326-327). In fact, only part of the information, observations and descriptions about manatees and other aquatic animals entered the European circles of modern natural history and philosophy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brito, 2018</xref>), maybe due to a choice of the translator or the author, lack of access to some publications, or inconsistencies in the description, which was not considered to be truthful. Regardless of the reason, much remained untold and unknown about the aquatic tropical fauna of the Americas, and only recently some of this information started being recovered by most recent historiography on modern natural history or environmental history. (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brito, 2016</xref>). Matto re-emerged in Torquemada’s “Jardín de Flores Curiosas”, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand (1950</xref>, pp. 28, 38-41), a historian particularly fond of the unlikely and the unusual.</p>
				<p>Inconceivable to some authors, yet credible to others, the story of the domesticated manatee (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>) indicates that the people of that tribe saw in the peaceful spirit of Matto the refined compliance with the best rules of conduct.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn23"><sup>11</sup></xref> He becomes, like the dolphin that transported the Greek Arion, a figure worthy of entering human fables and epics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand, 1950</xref>, p. 30). It shows us the different interactions of people from diverse cultural backgrounds with the animal, confronting the indigenous with the European, and in part blaming the latter for the disappearance of the animal from the happy and peaceful “human-animal” community in which he lived.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f8">
						<label>Figure 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Illustration by Elvira Gascon, in the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Durand’s work (1950</xref>), represents the scene of the magnificent manatee transporting people from the chief Caramatexi tribe.</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1806-9347-rbh-1806-93472019v39n81-08-gf8.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Yet, more than a romanticisation of the Amerindian and his relations with a pristine nature, this account seems to show us that the domestication of natural life is seldom, and never totally, attained. This human attempt to control is even more difficult with aquatic animals living in a three-dimensional environment, so different from land reality. These animals migrate, move, hide, become more elusive, alter their behaviours and may even change their occupation zone. As a consequence of these changes - often imposed by human presence - societies dependent on certain types of animals can move according to these more or less natural changes. Ecosystems are complex networks, which encompass all beings living and depending on them, as well as all the links between them. And this web of life knows no barriers. It even incudes humans, who historically organise themselves by living standards limited by nation-states with all kinds of boundaries - physical, mental, and epistemological - imposed on them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Rangarajan, 2011</xref>, pp. 27-30).</p>
				<p>Manatees kept their hybrid role - pragmatic and symbolic - in the rivers and coastal waters, which they inhabited, and a close relationship with humans. Thus, we find them suitable to be explored as a case study. The effect of the agency of nature, in this case, of the rivers’ waters and the manatees, on life and some human activities also becomes evident.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn24"><sup>12</sup></xref> Knowing the rhythms of nature, it would be possible for people to adapt and use them to their advantage. Not knowing, or not understanding, natural events left no other possibility but to submit to them. In this case, the river took back what it had brought. </p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>These fish [manatees] are mostly found in some rivers, or bays of this coast [Santa Cruz, Brazil], especially where some stream or brook gets into the salt water: because they put out the snout and pasture the herbs which grow in similar parts and also eat the leaves of some trees they call mangroves, which are abundant along the same rivers. The inhabitants of the land kill them with harpoons and some also in fisheries, because they come with the flood of the tide to such places and with the ebb they return to the sea where they came from. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Gândavo, [1550-1557]1980</xref>, cap. 8)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>Seen as nourishment and a medicinal resource, feedstuff for tools, a religious or magical element, far beyond a friend or pet, the manatees kept their agency active throughout the entire history of their interaction with indigenous and colonial societies. Its presence has been incorporated into the life of Europeans both locally and in Europe, like that of all other nonhuman elements of this tropical world, which were common in the daily lives of the indigenous tribes of the Caribbean and South America. This was done through direct contact and empirical knowledge, or via transatlantic economic or scientific communications, which brought information to Europe. The development of human relationships, already existent or formed from the modern era on, with the nature of this region, was not based on a complete opposition, but on the contrary, on a close connection between people and other species (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cabral, 2015</xref>, pp. 104-105). In that context, the aquatic systems may unravel moments of protagonism of the native peoples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Almeida; Kater, 2017</xref>) in the Americas in pre-Columbian and modern times, as well as situations of protagonism of the animals themselves.</p>
				<p>Rivers represent, physically and metaphorically, systems of confluence and interaction between different people, and between people and animals, or even, in a broader sense, people and nature. They are actual zones of aggregation - of people, animals, resources and possibilities. In addition, they are communication and travel routes and link diverse geographical areas, constituting a mode of transference and movement of people and natural elements. Yet, like in most situations of convergence of humans and the nonhuman world (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Denning, 1980</xref>), situations of divergence between these ambivalent realities tend to emerge. This story of contradiction in the way people relate to and use these varied and plural ecosystems is common to many ecological, human, oceanic, coastal, and river systems around the world. Rivers, as well as other monumental elements of natural landscapes - islands (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Denning, 1980</xref>), waterfalls (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Almeida; Kater, 2017</xref>), coastal zones, mountains and forests (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Vadjunec et al., 2012</xref>) -, are spatial crossroads forming nodes of contact and zones of confluence of stories and of construction of history.</p>
				<p>There is thus a story that is not only blue, but also brown (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Gillis; Torma, 2015</xref>, pp. 1-3), as it encompasses the sea, rivers and transition zones. It is a marine environmental history that contributes to an integrated apprehension and understanding of ecological and human systems over time and throughout diverse historical and cultural contexts. Although this history did not leave enough written or material vestiges, it is possible to reconstruct it resorting to methodologies of different subjects of the humanities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Gillis; Torma, 2015</xref>). These same authors quote David <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Helvarg (2001</xref>, p. 245) at the end of their chapter (p. 11): “we love the ocean, we use the ocean, but we do not think enough about the ocean.” Similarly, we do not reflect enough on rivers, transitional waters, coastal areas, nor about manatees, turtles, sharks, and a myriad of fauna and flora that inhabit these ecosystems. They are ecosystems and living elements on which we depend and to which we have got used to. The process towards a sustainable human life on Earth is now inevitable, and the historical process of bringing these animals, active agents in the creation of our common past, to the water surface will be one of the pillars of our future life on this planet.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn14">
					<label>2</label>
					<p>For instance, an account referring to the ferocity of sharks and the relationship of people with them in the 18th century West Indies: “On the same day our sailors took a shark that for two or three days had not left our ship; it was difficult to put him on board, he was more than ten feet long; it is the same fish, which we called in La Rochelle a sea dog, but the ones I had seen were no longer than two feet ... it is armed with three rows of sharp, sharp, sharp teeth; is a voracious, daring and dangerous animal” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">LABAT, 1722</xref>, pp. 45-46). Sharks, like manatees, are (re) signified in a similar way by different naturalists, humanists, and missionaries, even if there is plenty of time between their publications. Fear is a constant in the case of sharks. Naturalistic curiosity, utilitarian interest, and commercial value appear across the descriptive passages about manatees. The European look on these tropical animals seems to be similar</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn15">
					<label>3</label>
					<p>Transcript of a Christopher Columbus’s passage, as it appears in the book of Joseph Durand (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">DURAND, 1950</xref>, p. 22): “Last day, when the Admiral was going to the Rio del Oro, he said that he saw three mermaids who came out of the deep sea, but they were not as beautiful as they say, they looked somehow had like a man in the face. He also said that other times he saw some in Guinea, on the coast of Manegueta”.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn16">
					<label>4</label>
					<p>Only in Brazil do the distribution areas of the species <italic>T. manatus</italic> and <italic>T. inunguis</italic> coincide; the first exists in the coastal environment, and can enter river embankments, mangroves and estuaries, and the second is exclusively found in inland waters, appearing in the Amazon River and possibly also in the Orinoco. In the past, in times of greater abundance of populations and individuals, it is very likely that there were areas of overlap in the distribution of both species in the transition zones between the rivers and the sea.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn17">
					<label>5</label>
					<p>The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2017-3, http://www.iucnredlist.org, downloaded on 27 June 2018.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn18">
					<label>6</label>
					<p>Descriptions of manatees and other species of marine mammals and aquatic animals reveal much of the empirical knowledge on tropical nature and local wildlife. Yet, they were often confused or originated local beliefs; aquatic monsters, seamen, hybrid beings and diverse aquatic indigenous mythologies were born to them. The narratives of the chroniclers for Portuguese America are diverse (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">CAMENIETZKI and ZERON, 2000</xref>), and several authors have devoted themselves to the discussion of these themes from multiple perspectives (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">CAMENIETZKI; ZERON, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">LEITE, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">PAPAVERO; TEIXEIRA, 2014</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">BRITO, 2018</xref>).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn19">
					<label>7</label>
					<p>Several documents and sources account for a significant decrease in the number of manatees in colonial Brazil from the mid-18th century. See: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">VIEIRA; BRITO, 2017</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn20">
					<label>8</label>
					<p>Father José de Acosta stated he accepted, but had doubts, to consume manatee meat on Fridays because this was a real animal that had calves and suckled them, although it lived in the water. It was normally consumed as fish in the islands of Cuba, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico and Jamaica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">HEATON, 1934</xref>, p. 329): “In the islands that call <italic>Barlavento</italic>... there is what they call manatee, a strange kind of fish, if it is possible consider fish an animal that gives birth to its offspring, and has teats, and feeds them with milk, and eats grass in the field; but in fact it lives usually in the water, and for that reason they eat it like fish, although in Santo Domingo when I ate it on a Friday, I was scrupulous, not so much for eating it but because it tasted and looked exactly like veal” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">ACOSTA, 1590</xref>, p. 7).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn21">
					<label>9</label>
					<p>The Taíno - considered to be excellent fishermen - were, when the Europeans arrived to the Caribbean at the end of the 15th century, one of the indigenous peoples occupying several islands in that region. At the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, there were in the island called Hispaniola five heads and Taíno territories, each one headed by a cacique (chief).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn22">
					<label>10</label>
					<p>Marília Lopes uses this same image to illustrate the concept of fantasy connected with European discoveries and explorations of the natural world of the Americas: “European scholars are happy to hear about the novelties of the recently found lands: animals, fish, birds, trees, plants and fruits never seen before. [...] [But] The graphic art also uses another language: that of fantasy. Following the reports of fantastic and extraordinary beings from the Books of Wonders, artists give way to strangeness and novelty by drawing, for instance, a fish or an amphibian of great dimensions capable of carrying five men on their back” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">LOPES, 1998</xref>, pp. 74-75).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn23">
					<label>11</label>
					<p>The word used by the author in this context is “urbanidad”, referring to a group of people, or a city, coexisting in a common environment with mutual respect.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn24">
					<label>12</label>
					<p>The agency of the river (or the animal) operates here in a broader sense of the concept introduced by Peter Coates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">COATES, 2013</xref>, pp. 7-31), where there is a nonreflective agency that emerges from the very capacity to produce or condition certain results. In this author’s view, which we take on board, the actors involved need not be rational, nor intelligent, just effective. Moreover, he says, if they enjoy will, logic and a sense of direction, these are essential attributes of agency. Thus, in this perspective, the rivers also qualify as active agents.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn13">
					<label>1</label>
					<p>This work was developed during a stay at the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University (2018) as a guest researcher, thus I thank to Neil Safier, staff and colleagues who provided me with a unique sharing environment for the development of my research. I also thank Celso Aleixo Pinto, APA - Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente, I.P., for his collaboration with the Investigation Line “Environmental History and the Sea” of CHAM - Centro de Humanidades (NOVA FCSH) in the analysis of geographical data (map of Figure 1). I also thank Catarina Garcia, Nina Vieira, Patrícia Carvalho and Carla A. Pinto, colleagues from CHAM for their support and dedication to the research work on the sea in the modern age. This work is part of the project H2020 MSCA-RISE [777998 “CONCHA-The construction of early modern global Cities and oceanic networks in the Atlantic: An approach via Ocean’s People, Manatees and the Aquatic Environment in Early Modern Americas Cultural Heritage”], of the UNESCO Chair “The Oceans’ Cultural Heritage” (FCSH, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa) and was supported by the strategic project of CHAM (FCSH, NOVA, UAc) funded by FCT (UID/HIS/04666/2013). This work is also supported by national funds through FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., within the establishment of the contract-programme numbers 4, 5 and 6 of the article 23º of D.L. nº 57/2016, of August 29, altered by the Law nº 57/2017, July 19.</p>
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				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn25">
					<label>25</label>
					<p>English version: We Value, Lda.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
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