<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.0 20120330//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.0/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="pt" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rbh</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista Brasileira de História</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev. Bras. Hist.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1806-9347</issn>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0102-0188</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Associação Nacional de História - ANPUH</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00003</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1806-93472020v40n84-02</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>DOSSIÊ - A HISTÓRIA ANTIGA ENTRE O LOCAL E O GLOBAL: INTEGRAÇÃO, CONFLITO E USOS DO PASSADO</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>A recusa da interação: um ensaio historiográfico sobre etnocentrismo e racismo na Grécia Antiga<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>The Fear of Social Interaction:A Historiographical Essay on Ethnocentrism and Racism in Ancient Greece</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2036-6491</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Jácome</surname>
						<given-names>Félix</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil. felixjacome@hotmail.com</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de São Paulo</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<email>felixjacome@hotmail.com</email>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2020</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>40</volume>
			<issue>84</issue>
			<fpage>21</fpage>
			<lpage>41</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>03</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2020</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2020</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMO</title>
				<p>O artigo discute estudiosos recentes que têm advogado a favor da utilização dos conceitos de raça e racismo para explicar preconceitos culturais em Grécia e Roma antigas. Mais particularmente, este estudo debate os argumentos para o caso de uma Grécia antiga racista ou protorracista elaborados por Benjamin <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004)</xref> em <italic>The Invention of Racism in Antiquity</italic> e Susan <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010)</xref> em <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>. Segundo essa perspectiva historiográfica, existiria muito mais continuidade entre o racismo antigo e o moderno do que pensávamos. O presente artigo aponta dificuldades com os argumentos dessa abordagem, bem como sustenta que as relações étnicas na Grécia antiga são mais bem compreendidas como formas não hereditárias de preconceito cultural e não como racismo, que tem uma história específica ligada à colonização europeia e ao tráfico negreiro da época moderna.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				<p>This article discusses scholars who have been advocating the concepts of race and racism to explain cultural prejudices in ancient Greece and Rome. More precisely, this study debates the arguments for the case of an ancient racist or proto-racist Greece elaborated on by Benjamin Isaac (2004) in <italic>The Invention of Racism in Antiquity</italic> and Susan Lape (2010)in <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>. Thus, for this historiographical perspective, there is much more continuity between ancient and modern racism than we had assumed. This article highlights certain conceptual and argumentative flaws in this approach, maintaining that ethnic relations in ancient Greece are better explained as non-hereditary forms of cultural prejudice rather than as racism, which has a specific history related to European colonization and slave trade.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Grécia antiga</kwd>
				<kwd>racismo</kwd>
				<kwd>etnicidade</kwd>
				<kwd>preconceito cultural</kwd>
				<kwd>autoctonia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Ancient Greece</kwd>
				<kwd>racism</kwd>
				<kwd>ethnicity</kwd>
				<kwd>cultural prejudice</kwd>
				<kwd>autochthony</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<award-group award-type="contract">
					<funding-source>Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo</funding-source>
					<award-id>2018/17414-6</award-id>
					<award-id>2019/07542-0</award-id>
				</award-group>
				<funding-statement>Trabalho financiado pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo processos nos 2018/17414-6; 2019/07542-0. Gostaria de agradecer a Xavier Riu e Jaume Pòrtulas (Universitat de Barcelona), bem como a Richard Seaford (University of Exeter), por terem discutido comigo as ideias deste artigo.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="116"/>
				<page-count count="21"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>A grande maioria dos pesquisadores enfatiza a modernidade do conceito de racismo. O racismo seria fruto de um contexto histórico particular caracterizado pela experiência europeia de colonização entre os séculos XVII e XIX, assim como pelo desenvolvimento da teoria darwinista da evolução e pela construção de uma ciência que explicasse o desenvolvimento desigual das supostas raças<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>2</sup></xref> humanas. Assim, a lógica de derivar características culturais e morais de marcas fenotípicas e biológicas é típica do pensamento racista que surgiu na modernidade europeia.</p>
		<p>Assim sendo, o racismo seria uma experiência desconhecida da Antiguidade. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hannaford (1996</xref>), por exemplo, dedica três capítulos ao mundo antigo em sua história do racismo e conclui que “houve uma assinalável <italic>ausência</italic> de raça como ideia organizadora durante o período Grego-Romano” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hannaford, 1996</xref>, p. 8). Na história dos racismos feita por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bethencourt (2013</xref>), lemos que, no mundo romano, “não há evidência de discriminação sistemática contra pessoas de determinada etnia” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bethencourt, 2013</xref>, p. 14). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Michel (2020</xref>), por sua vez, afirma que “é preciso considerar, portanto, que a ideia de raça não precede o escravismo europeu nem o justifica” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Michel, 2020</xref>, p. 19).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
		</p>
		<p>Além do argumento do racismo como experiência histórica particular ligada ao desenvolvimento da sociedade europeia e ao tráfego negreiro, como enfatiza <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Michel (2020</xref>), outra importante razão para a conclusão hegemônica de que raça e racismo seriam noções alheias ao mundo clássico reside na influência dos resultados das pesquisas levadas a cabo por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Snowden (1970</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">1983</xref>) e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Thompson (1989</xref>). Snowden, afro-americano que estudou as fontes literárias e artísticas da Antiguidade<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4"><sup>4</sup></xref>relativamente aos povos negros subsaarianos, concluiu que a cor da pele não foi vista como elemento fundamental de inferioridade que condenaria indivíduos de pele escura a possuir um conjunto inato e negativo de características morais e sociais. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Thompson (1989)</xref>, que foi professor na Universidade de Ibadan, na Nigéria, não obstante o realce que conferiu a diversas observações depreciativas dos romanos diante de povos de pele negra, enfatizou que essas expressões nada têm a ver com o fenômeno moderno de raça e são distintas daquelas descritas pelos cientistas sociais como racismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Thompson, 1989</xref>, p. 157).</p>
		<p>Uma historiografia recente tem desafiado, contudo, essa tese de que o racismo é um fenômeno desconhecido do mundo antigo. Para uma das principais proponentes, esse quase consenso sobre a não aplicabilidade do conceito de racismo para a Antiguidade clássica tem influenciado os leitores a pensar que nenhum tipo de estrutura racial teria existido entre gregos e romanos, obscurecendo a compreensão dessas sociedades (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">McCoskey, 2012</xref>, p. 9). Para Denise McCoskey, aplicar conceitos como etnicidade e relações étnicas para explicar as conexões e os conflitos culturais entre os grupos humanos, como se tem feito na História antiga nos últimos 25 anos,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>5</sup></xref> não é suficiente. Ela advoga “um retorno ao conceito de raça. Minha recomendação [é] que revivamos o uso do termo específico raça para conotar as operações de organização e essencialização da identidade” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">McCoskey, 2002</xref>, p. 30-31).</p>
		<p>McCoskey não está sozinha nessa revisão historiográfica. Seu trabalho dialoga intimamente com <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>) e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>). Vistos como um conjunto, essas obras configuram um importante desafio à ortodoxia dos estudos culturais na Antiguidade, que há muito assume que raça e racismo são termos inapropriados para descrever as atitudes antigas em relação a estrangeiros. Além disso, a tese desses autores pode ter relevância significativa para a problemática das origens e da história do racismo, haja vista que eles defendem uma importante linha de continuidade entre racismo antigo e moderno. Dada a relevância da temática, faz-se necessário um balanço historiográfico sobre os méritos e as fraquezas dessa defesa do uso do léxico do racismo para explicar as interações culturais entre povos distintos na Antiguidade clássica.</p>
		<p>Ao passo que Lape estuda sobretudo o período clássico grego (séculos V-IV a.C.),<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Isaac e McCoskey analisam também o mundo romano. De maneira a delimitar o escopo desta investigação, contudo, o presente artigo focará a sociedade grega da época clássica, discutindo especialmente como Isaac e Lape leem esse período, nomeadamente por que decidem utilizar a terminologia ligada a raça e racismo em lugar das noções habituais de etnicidade, e como interpretam a seleção de fontes históricas que utilizam para basear seus argumentos.</p>
		<p>Será privilegiado neste trabalho o que julgo ser o núcleo argumentativo desses autores concernente à Grécia antiga: a relação entre o mito dos atenienses como povo autóctone e a lei de cidadania aprovada pelos atenienses a partir de uma proposta de Péricles em 451/450 a.C. Veremos que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>) explora esses tópicos inter-relacionados de modo aprofundado, argumentando que o mito da autoctonia foi o aspecto ideológico do racismo ateniense, enquanto a lei de cidadania teria sido a manifestação legal e prática dessa ideologia.</p>
		<sec>
			<title>O PROTORRACISMO DE BENJAMIN ISAAC E O “RACISMO ATENIENSE” DE SUSAN LAPE</title>
			<p>Além de discriminação direta e explícita contra negros, existe, nas sociedades ocidentais, uma gama variada de discriminações, não raras vezes sutis, disfarçadas e indiretas, contra grupos mais amplos que os setores negros da sociedade.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Nesta nova configuração multicultural do racismo, alguns autores recentes, especialmente na Europa, tentam deslocar o conceito de racismo da cor da pele ao enfatizar, por exemplo, a discriminação sofrida, em países centrais da Europa, por imigrantes brancos do Leste europeu ou por refugiados sírios. Nesse sentido, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Sivanandan (2008</xref>, p. 167-168) caracteriza o tipo de racismo que ocorre na Europa em nosso tempo de globalização de xenorracismo, isto é, uma combinação de racismo e xenofobia, na qual a discriminação racista aparece sob a forma de um discurso meramente xenófobo, isto é, uma aversão ao estrangeiro que independeria de características do corpo e apenas reafirmaria as identidades nacionais.</p>
			<p>A dispensabilidade da cor da pele como critério para a definição do racismo amplia, logicamente, as possibilidades de os estudiosos aplicarem o conceito de racismo para a Antiguidade. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>, p. 39-40) e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">McCoskey (2012</xref>, p. 10), assim, negligenciam o tema da cor da pele como critério de definição do racismo. No entanto, a escolha desses autores em desconsiderar a cor da pele é questionável, entre outras razões, porque deixa sem explicação a continuidade, que, entretanto, almejam enfatizar, entre o suposto racismo antigo e o moderno, uma vez que a criação das categorias de branco e negro a partir da experiência colonial europeia foi fator determinante para o racismo moderno (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Michel, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Para o meu entendimento, Isaac e Lape não foram suficientemente claros sobre o significado dos seus livros para a comunidade acadêmica. Tudo se passa como se eles quisessem legitimar a aplicação do conceito de racismo para a Antiguidade sem, contudo, serem os responsáveis por esse enorme revisionismo historiográfico (uma crítica também feita, em relação a Lape, por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Blok, 2014</xref>, p. 869). De início, o título do livro de Isaac, <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic> (A invenção do racismo na Antiguidade Clássica) leva a equívocos porque não condiz com boa parte do conteúdo do livro. Em geral, a tese de Isaac é que a Antiguidade conheceu uma forma de protorracismo, uma demonstração mais difusa e menos marcada por determinismos biológicos típicos do racismo moderno. Nas palavras do autor: “eu, certamente, não alego que estamos lidando aqui com a forma específica do racismo científico que foi produto do século XIX” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 1). Ainda segundo Isaac, seu trabalho destina-se a “oferecer um estudo sistemático das formas de protorracismo, preconceito étnico e xenofobia que podem ser encontradas na literatura antiga de Grécia e Roma do século V a.C. até a Antiguidade Tardia” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 2).</p>
			<p>Ainda que Isaac mostre consciência de que racismo (ou protorracismo) não é sinônimo de xenofobia (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 23-34), ele não é rigoroso no uso dos conceitos, tratando-os, muitas vezes, como intercambiáveis. Assim, para ele, a problemática do livro reside na “ambivalência e hostilidade em relação a estrangeiros, ao que não é familiar, às minorias imigrantes” (p. 4). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004)</xref>, portanto, não é sobre a invenção do racismo na Antiguidade. Um título mais acurado poderia ser: “Relações étnicas, protorracismo e xenofobia na Antiguidade clássica”. Essa obra de Isaac constitui, sobretudo, um argumento a favor da forte presença de tensões étnicas e xenofóbicas nessas sociedades. Apenas nesse enquadramento o minucioso trabalho de Isaac é, a meu ver, convincente.</p>
			<p>O título do livro de Susan Lape, <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic> (Raça e identidade cidadã na democracia ateniense clássica), também não é isento de dificuldades. A palavra incomum que aparece no título é, claro, <italic>race</italic> (“raça”). No índice da obra, aparecem outras expressões bastante atípicas para descrever tal época histórica: “The Sociopolitical Context of Athenian Racism” (“O contexto sociopolítico do racismo ateniense”); “From Autochthony to Race” (“De autoctonia à raça”); “Renewing Racism and Refusing Civil War” (“Renovando racismo e recusando guerra civil”). Não obstante o uso explícito de termos como raça e racismo, incluindo a notória expressão “racismo ateniense”, a autora esclarece: “o que se deve enfatizar é que nada neste projeto depende do uso do termo ‘racial’ em si. Pode-se ler todo o estudo substituindo ‘étnico’ ou outro termo menos controverso por ‘racial’” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. ix). Essa é uma afirmação surpreendente, pois se o argumento não depende de conceitos como “raça” e “racial”, por que os inserir no título e nos tópicos do livro? Se “étnico” pode ser um sinônimo de “racial”, por que a autora afirma que “os conceitos de cidadania racial e racismo são mais ajustados do que cidadania étnica” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 37)? Há, como já apontado por outros estudiosos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Tuplin, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Blok, 2014</xref>), problemas de terminologia e de definição que comprometem os projetos de Isaac e Lape.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>AUTOCTONIA, PUREZA DA “RAÇA” ATENIENSE E LEI DE CIDADANIA DE 451/450 A.C.</title>
			<p>Isaac e Lape consideram que o mito dos atenienses como povo autóctone e a lei de cidadania aprovada pelos atenienses em 451/450 formam, respectivamente, o constructo ideológico e a principal materialidade prática da ideologia racial (para Lape) ou protorracista (para Isaac) da Atenas dos séculos V e IV. Vejamos com mais detalhes esta interpretação, pois ela revela a maneira pela qual esses autores leem as fontes e por que razão concluem que a atitude dos gregos em relação aos estrangeiros pode ser explicada de maneira mais profícua utilizando o campo semântico do racismo.</p>
			<p>Como vários outros povos, antigos e modernos, os atenienses construíram sua identidade étnica a partir da noção de que formavam uma espécie de “família alargada” na qual todos os cidadãos poderiam alegar uma ascendência comum (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Davies, 1977-1978</xref>). Os atenienses do período clássico acreditavam que sempre tinham vivido na mesma região, a Ática, contrariamente a outros gregos, especialmente os espartanos, que estariam associados, pela tradição dos próprios gregos, a vagas migratórias. Nas últimas décadas do século V, como argumenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Rosivach (1987</xref>), o mito da autoctonia teria assumido a sua forma completa, que se liga à própria ambiguidade do termo grego <italic>autochthon</italic>, formado por <italic>auto</italic> (“mesmo”; “igual”) e <italic>chthon</italic> (“terra”). Assim, os atenienses seriam concomitantemente aqueles que estiveram sempre na mesma terra e aqueles que foram gerados da própria terra da Ática, de maneira similar ao mítico rei Erecteu.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8"><sup>8</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>A maneira pela qual os atenienses contavam a si próprios suas origens e suas particularidades enquanto povo tinha, obviamente, repercussão prática na vida política e religiosa da cidade. Se todos os cidadãos atenienses nasceram da terra, todos teriam, imaginariamente, um nobre nascimento. O mito da autoctonia, como afirmam corretamente alguns estudiosos (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Loraux, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 26-28), é a resposta democrática à ênfase na <italic>eugeneia</italic> (“nobre nascimento”) típica do passado aristocrático dos gregos, no qual o valor do indivíduo era medido de acordo com a nobreza da origem familiar. A autoctonia democratiza o nobre nascimento, pois todos os cidadãos, consoante essa lógica, seriam ilustres pois filhos da cidade de Atenas, independentemente da família específica na qual viveriam ou dos recursos econômicos que possuíssem. Assim, observa Aristóteles em <italic>Retórica</italic>, “nobreza [<italic>eugeneia</italic>] significa para um povo e uma cidade que a origem dos seus membros é autóctone ou antiga, que os seus primeiros chefes foram ilustres, e que muitos descendentes se ilustraram em qualidades invejáveis” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Aristóteles, 1998</xref>, 1360b, 31-34).</p>
			<p>Se o mito da autoctonia ajudou a criar e sustentar uma identidade comum entre os atenienses, também operou, pela mesma lógica, a exclusão de quem não se encaixava no critério autóctone que definia o corpo de cidadãos. Os autores que defendem o uso do léxico do racismo para esse período histórico insistem, precisamente, no caráter excludente da ideologia autóctone que, segundo eles, é agravada com a reforma da cidadania ocorrida em 451/450.</p>
			<p>A partir dessa data, com efeito, para participar plenamente da pólis, era preciso ser filho de pai e mãe cidadãos, alterando o estado anterior no qual bastava que, geralmente, o pai fosse cidadão. Ora, à primeira vista, parece claro que essa nova lei desencorajou casamentos mistos entre ateniense e estrangeiro(a), de maneira que a sua lógica favoreceu a endogamia na própria sociedade ateniense, além de promover certa restrição do corpo cívico. As fontes antigas são quase silenciosas sobre os motivos pelos quais os atenienses realizaram tal reconfiguração da cidadania nesse momento histórico preciso. A única razão realmente avançada pelos antigos consiste na linha escrita pelo autor da obra <italic>Constituição dos Atenienses</italic> de que a lei foi promulgada “em razão do elevado número de cidadãos” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aristóteles, 2011</xref>, 26.4).</p>
			<p>Essa explicação aristotélica sobre a razão da reforma da transmissão dos direitos civis, como já notaram diversos estudiosos, não pode ser lida literalmente. Nada leva a crer que a Ática estivesse vivenciando qualquer superpopulação depois de vários anos de guerra contra os Persas nas décadas anteriores. Descartada essa explanação, os especialistas divergem significativamente.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Alguns pensam que devemos reter parcialmente a frase aristotélica, alterando levemente o sentido: os cidadãos são numerosos, não em termos absolutos, mas relativos, ou seja, há muitos cidadãos participando de algum aspecto específico da pólis, que poderia ser preservado pela redução do corpo cívico. Assim, a ideia da lei poderia ser conservar os crescentes benefícios do nascente império ateniense para um grupo mais restrito de cidadãos, diante de um possível cenário no qual a cidadania estaria mais valiosa e cobiçada por estrangeiros em razão da riqueza cultural e material que os cidadãos de Atenas poderiam usufruir em meados do século V (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Davies, 1977-1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Leão, 2011</xref>, p. 107). Outros estudiosos, contudo, pensam que a frase aristotélica reflete a preocupação dos atenienses nesse tempo com o crescente número de cidadãos oriundos de casamentos mistos, especialmente advindos da possível prática dos homens atenienses mais abastados procurarem esposas estrangeiras a fim de estreitarem laços com as elites de outras cidades. Nessa visão, a lei de cidadania teria sido imbuída de certo espírito democrático de minar formas desproporcionais de poder e <italic>status</italic> da elite ateniense (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Humphreys, 1974</xref>, p. 93-94).</p>
			<p>Por fim, uma terceira maneira pela qual a lei de cidadania tem sido interpretada leva-nos de regresso à discussão sobre a historiografia recente acerca das relações raciais na Antiguidade. Alguns estudiosos interpretam as mudanças na lei de atribuição de cidadania como uma manifestação prática e “estatal” da ideologia da autoctonia. Nessa linha de pensamento, a lei teria posto em prática e plasmado no direito o desejo de purificar a “raça” do povo ateniense ao combater os casamentos mistos. Assim, permitindo a cidadania apenas a quem fosse nascido de pai e mãe atenienses, os atenienses preservariam seu sangue puro e sustentariam, na prática, o orgulho da excepcionalidade e superioridade do seu povo e da sua relação exclusiva com a terra Ática.</p>
			<p>Um dos primeiros autores a pensar a questão nesses termos foi <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Hignett (1952</xref>), em um livro significativamente escrito pouco depois da Segunda Guerra Mundial, período em que o tema da pureza racial estava ainda muito presente na cultura europeia por causa do período nazista. Para Hignett, o principal aspecto da lei de 451/450 teria sido “preservar a pureza racial [<italic>racial purity</italic>] do corpo de cidadãos” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Hignett, 1952</xref>, p. 345).</p>
			<p>A interpretação da lei de cidadania de 451/450 como uma manifestação do desejo dos atenienses em evitar qualquer mistura da sua “raça” com estrangeiros teve alguns outros apoiadores nas décadas subsequentes ao livro de Hignett (por exemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Kagan, 1969</xref>, p. 104), mas caiu em desuso desde os anos 1980.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Uma das razões para essa perda de credibilidade deve-se às consideráveis críticas que tal visão recebeu na historiografia desse período. Uma parte dessas críticas será retomada na parte final do artigo. Vejamos, agora, os contornos do renascimento dessa tese da puridade racial por obra da historiografia do século XXI, especialmente <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>) e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>) afirma que as fontes do período clássico grego mostram o desenvolvimento de uma “cidadania racial” promovida pela própria cidade de Atenas. Para Lape, o aspecto ideológico do racismo ateniense seria o mito da autoctonia, a dimensão prática seria um conjunto de medidas legais tomadas por Atenas para evitar a mistura da “raça” ateniense com qualquer indivíduo estrangeiro, ao passo que o aspecto sistêmico do racismo seria a própria atuação da pólis ateniense em legalizar e promover o reforço da identidade ateniense às custas da reiterada degradação do estatuto do estrangeiro em terra Ática. Vejamos, com mais detalhes, o raciocínio de Lape acerca da “cidadania racial” ateniense ao articular esses elementos definidores do racismo.</p>
			<p>O trabalho de Lape insere-se em um vasto campo historiográfico que tem se dedicado, pelo menos desde a década de 1970, a explorar as ideologias da cidade de Atenas. Em outras palavras, essa abordagem valoriza a maneira como as artes, o teatro, os discursos em honra dos soldados mortos em batalha (as Orações Fúnebres) e os textos pronunciados diante da Assembleia ou dos Tribunais da Atenas democrática tendiam a apresentar uma imagem idealizada de Atenas, como uma entidade cívica una, sem diversidade e sem conflitos dentro do corpo social. Esse foi, por exemplo, um dos principais programas de pesquisa da “Escola de Paris”, especialmente por meio de Jean-Pierre Vernant e Nicole Loraux.</p>
			<p>Loraux, com efeito, alçou o mito da autoctonia a peça chave da ideologia cívica ateniense. Para a especialista francesa, “Recordar a autoctonia constitui, por certo, um elemento primordial da propaganda exterior de Atenas e, segundo as necessidades do momento, a pureza do nascimento sem alianças espúrias funda o direito de hegemonia [relativamente às outras cidades] ou o ódio da cidade contra os bárbaros” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Loraux, [1981]2006a</xref>, p. 210-211).</p>
			<p>Nesse sentido, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Loraux ([1981]2006a</xref>, p. 210) considera que a autoctonia é o “mito patriótico e cívico que encarna a unidade da comunidade ateniense”. Lape segue a mesma linha de valorizar a autoctonia como peça fundamental do imaginário cívico dos atenienses. Para ela, autoctonia significa promoção da pureza racial ateniense, e a lei da cidadania de 451/450 a.C. teria sido a tradução dessa ideologia para a realidade concreta da definição de quem fazia parte do corpo cívico dos autóctones: “a lei parece traduzir a fundação étnico-nacional da identidade cidadã encapsulada no mito na nova realidade legal e política” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 24). Esta seria, portanto, a concretização prática da cidadania racial ateniense, a articulação entre ideologia, ação e estrutura.</p>
			<p>Analisar com detalhes as fontes discutidas por Lape transcende as possibilidades deste artigo.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Por hora, faz-se necessário lançar luz sobre duas fragilidades da tese de Lape: a ligação cronológica que ela estabelece entre autoctonia e a lei da cidadania proposta por Péricles, e sua leitura da autoctonia como um mito de pureza racial. Relativamente ao primeiro ponto, não se pode afirmar de maneira categórica que “a passagem da lei indubitavelmente expressa uma ideologia preexistente” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape 2010</xref>, p. 24), pois, como demonstrado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Rosivach (1987</xref>), não há evidências de que o mito da autoctonia, em sua forma completa, seja anterior à lei de cidadania.</p>
			<p>Como sustenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Rosivach (1987</xref>), o primeiro significado de <italic>autochthon</italic> (viveram desde tempos imemoriais no mesmo território) é, provavelmente, cronologicamente mais antigo do que o segundo (nascidos da própria terra), que pode muito bem ser uma invenção posterior à lei de 451/450.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12"><sup>12</sup></xref> O argumento de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>), contudo, depende de que os dois significados já sejam operativos na primeira metade do século V, o que, como Rosivach nota, é improvável. É significativo que as fontes históricas que Lape discute, como o <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides, os discursos de Demóstenes ou o <italic>Menêxeno</italic> de Platão, sejam todos cronologicamente posteriores à lei de cidadania. Não obstante Lape esteja consciente do artigo de Rosivach, em nenhum momento ela realmente se engaja com o autor no sentido de debater essa dificuldade cronológica que enfraquece sua tese.</p>
			<p>Ainda que de maneira menos desenvolvida que Lape, Isaac também sugere uma estreita ligação entre o mito da autoctonia e a lei de cidadania. Ele afirma, com base na leitura do tema da autoctonia no <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides, que “a ideia de ser indígena foi usada como justificativa para manter os imigrantes em um <italic>status</italic> inferior. A noção de que os estrangeiros configuram uma ameaça externa se repete frequentemente na peça” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 118). Para Isaac “a insistência ateniense sobre a pureza da sua linhagem precisa ser tida em consideração” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 116, n. 226) na avaliação da lei de cidadania. As palavras de Isaac são mais cautelosas do que a “cidadania racial” proposta por Lape, ainda assim Isaac também falha por não lidar propriamente com o problema cronológico dos dois sentidos básicos do mito da autoctonia já referidos. Como Lape, ele menciona <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Rosivach (1987</xref>), porém não o debate propriamente.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13"><sup>13</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Assim sendo, sem o orgulho autóctone como causa da lei de 451/450, o argumento perde parte substancial da força, pois faltaria ao edifício argumentativo de Lape e Isaac a efetiva participação da cidade que teria criado leis especificamente para promover a racialização<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14"><sup>14</sup></xref> dos grupos sociais. Racismo sem o papel ativo da pólis perderia a sua dimensão estrutural, sendo apenas um conjunto de ideias ligadas à maneira pela qual os atenienses concebiam a sua ascendência de maneira imemorial e mítica. Esse é um problema especialmente para Lape, pois ela, diferentemente de Isaac, pretende trazer à comunidade acadêmica não apenas as origens mais ou menos remotas do racismo moderno nas <italic>ideias</italic> dos antigos, mas almeja demonstrar que as ideias raciais adquiriram expressão <italic>prática</italic> e <italic>legal</italic> na Atenas do período clássico.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15"><sup>15</sup></xref>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>DO <italic>MENÊXENO</italic> DE PLATÃO ÀS FORMAS NÃO HEREDITÁRIAS DE PRECONCEITO CULTURAL</bold></title>
			<p>Ainda que seja verdade a existência de alguns extratos da literatura grega nos quais surge certa ideia de pureza de sangue, isso não indica necessariamente que essas passagens sejam representativas de uma crença do cidadão ateniense médio em uma suposta superioridade racial. Compreensivelmente, contudo, tais passagens são preciosas para os defensores da terminologia do racismo antigo. Uma das mais explícitas está presente no <italic>Menêxeno</italic> de Platão.</p>
			<p>Nesse diálogo, datado do século IV a.C., Platão representa Sócrates recitando, para o jovem Menêxeno, uma Oração Fúnebre (<italic>epitaphios logos</italic>) que Sócrates teria ouvido de Aspásia, companheira de Péricles. Trata-se sobretudo de um exercício retórico que Platão elabora a partir da Oração Fúnebre, uma das mais relevantes cerimônias cívicas dos atenienses, na qual um orador era escolhido regularmente para proferir um discurso público em homenagem aos soldados que lutaram por Atenas e foram mortos em batalha. O texto platônico contém alguns dos tópicos básicos desse tipo de discurso, como o elogio ao povo e à cidade de Atenas, um histórico de feitos militares da cidade do passado ao presente e uma exortação aos atenienses do tempo atual. O problema interpretativo do <italic>Menêxeno</italic>, contudo, consiste no fato de que este argumento cívico, aparentemente sério, é exposto pelo Sócrates platônico por meio de um enquadramento que pode ser interpretado como irônico: “tu estás sempre a zombar dos oradores, Sócrates” (em <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Platão, 2014</xref>, 235c), diz Menêxeno a Sócrates. Assim, é difícil discernir se os elogios de Sócrates no discurso fúnebre são sinceros ou uma crítica irônica à retórica dos oradores de maneira similar ao que se pode ler no <italic>Górgias</italic> de Platão.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16"><sup>16</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Assim, no <italic>Menêxeno</italic>, Sócrates conta que os atenienses, diferentemente de outros gregos, não fizeram acordos vergonhosos com os persas. A razão dessa nobre atitude ateniense é seu intrínseco desprezo pelo bárbaro e a falta de miscigenação com esses povos:</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Assim consolidada e segura é a nobreza e a liberdade de nossa cidade, e por natureza hostil aos bárbaros, [d] porque somos helenos genuínos e não mestiços. Pois não convivem conosco nem descendentes de Pélops nem de Cadmo, nem egípcios nem dânaos, nem tantos outros que são por natureza bárbaros, embora helenos por lei; pelo contrário, nós mesmos, helenos, convivemos sem nos misturarmos com os bárbaros, de onde se enraíza um ódio puro à natureza estrangeira. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Platão, 2014</xref>, 245c6-d6)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>Essa passagem do <italic>Menêxeno</italic> apresenta, certamente, um profundo desprezo pelo estrangeiro - de toda sorte, bárbaros e outros gregos - com enaltecimento da pureza da linhagem ateniense, que seria distinta de outros gregos pois intocada por qualquer contato com a natureza dos bárbaros. Está implícito, aqui, o mito da autoctonia, que apresenta os atenienses, como vimos, como um povo que não se misturou na evolução histórica.</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 123) está correto, penso, ao ler nessa passagem a afirmação de que os atenienses são os únicos gregos puros. No entanto, há uma significativa diferença entre essa leitura e a conclusão de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>) de que esse tipo de passagem permite “antecipar ou prefigurar a interpretação racial da história que se desenvolveu no início da modernidade europeia” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 143). Nem Isaac nem Lape, com efeito, discutem apropriadamente o caráter <italic>sui generis</italic> dessa passagem platônica. Ela está inserida, como vimos, em uma obra platônica que muitos estudiosos têm interpretado como uma crítica a esse tipo de discurso fúnebre. </p>
			<p>É possível que tenhamos aí um mecanismo retórico de exagerar o caráter patriótico dos reais discursos fúnebres atenienses e não podemos estar tão confiantes quanto <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 123) de que o teor dessa passagem fosse compartilhado por muitos cidadãos atenienses. Outro elemento que aponta para o exagero retórico desse trecho do <italic>Menêxeno</italic> diz respeito ao vocabulário. Essa passagem de Platão é, com efeito, única na literatura grega por acumular um número impressionante de palavras ligadas à ideia de pureza, de natureza e de ódio em poucas linhas.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17"><sup>17</sup></xref> São quatro termos do campo semântico da pureza ou mistura: o advérbio <italic>eilikrinos</italic> e o adjetivo <italic>amigēs</italic>, que significam “sem mistura”; <italic>katharos</italic> que significa “limpo”, “puro”; <italic>meixobarbaros</italic>, que significa, nesse contexto, “meio bárbaro, meio grego”. Há, ainda, três ocorrências da palavra grega para “natureza” (<italic>physis</italic>), além de duas ocorrências da palavra grega para “ódio” (<italic>misos</italic>), incluindo uma no significativo composto <italic>misobarbaros</italic>, isto é, “ódio ao bárbaro”.</p>
			<p>É preciso ter em mente que a grande maioria do uso lexical dos termos ligados à pureza em grego antigo remete a noções triviais que nada têm a ver com a noção moderna de pureza racial. <italic>Eilikrinos</italic> e o substantivo correspondente <italic>eilikrinēs</italic> tão somente significam algo que não está misturado ou é genuíno, e a associação com <italic>amigēs</italic>, “sem mistura”, nessa passagem de Platão, que reforça a ideia de pureza dos helenos enquanto povo, é atípica na literatura grega<italic>.</italic> O adjetivo <italic>katharos</italic>, por sua vez, podia ser usado para qualificar o estado puro da água, como em Heródoto 4.53, ou poderia remeter à purificação de uma pessoa após ter sido contaminada religiosamente. Os atenienses são chamados de <italic>katharoi</italic> em Tucídides 5.8, mas isso meramente significa, nessa passagem, que a tropa que o espartano Brásidas poderia enfrentar era composta apenas por atenienses. Em <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides, a pólis é chamada <italic>kathara</italic> no verso 673, mas, novamente, isso não guarda relação alguma com pureza racial. Os compostos <italic>meixobarbaros</italic> e <italic>misobarbaros</italic>, por sua vez, certamente expressam um profundo desprezo dos gregos pelos povos não gregos tidos como bárbaros, mas esse sentimento pode ser classificado dentro da terminologia da etnicidade, antes que da raça e racismo.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18"><sup>18</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Assim sendo, identificar uma noção operativa de raça a partir desse passo do <italic>Menêxeno</italic> é metodologicamente arriscado por alguns motivos: 1) a seriedade da afirmação de Platão não é garantida; 2) o exagero patriótico desse passo é peculiar mesmo em relação às demais Orações Fúnebres que chegaram até nós, que não expõem, como argumenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cohen (2000</xref>, p. 94-103), angústia em relação a problemas de miscigenação ou afirmação de pureza racial; 3) a classificação dos grupos humanos com base em noções de sangue e miscigenação não é típica de Platão, que normalmente enfatiza que as diferenças entre os seres humanos devem ser entendidas pela posse ou ausência da virtude, existindo meios educacionais e filosóficos de a conseguir (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Kamtekar, 2002</xref>). Além disso, é preciso ter em conta que não há qualquer equivalente em grego antigo para nossa palavra “raça”, muito menos “racismo”, como reconhece <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">McCoskey (2006</xref>, p. 248) e demonstra <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Tuplin (1999</xref>).</p>
			<p>Os gregos (ou atenienses, no caso de Lape) profundamente inquietos com pureza racial e limpeza étnica são uma imagem anacrônica que interpreta como racismo fenômenos culturais mais adequadamente descritos como étnicos. Lape, por exemplo, parece acreditar que a cidadania por meio do princípio de <italic>ius sanguinis</italic> - ou seja, os direitos civis sendo transmitidos pela filiação parental (por meio dos dois pais no caso de Atenas pós-451) -, necessariamente significaria a presença de estrutura racial de proteção estatal da pureza de sangue contra a degradação de sangue representada pelo elemento estrangeiro à comunidade nacional definida pelo <italic>ius sanguinis</italic>. Se essa interpretação está correta, então, como argumenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Blok (2014</xref>, p. 870), todas as sociedades, antigas e modernas, que definem a cidadania por meio da noção de uma comunidade de descendência ligada por laços de sangue seriam racistas.</p>
			<p>Uma das maneiras mais recorrentes pelas quais os grupos humanos buscam construir suas identidades é por meio da atribuição de um valor comum e fundacional ao seu território e aos seus laços sanguíneos e de descendência. Esse elemento é básico na definição de grupos étnicos desde Max Weber e tem sido trabalhado nos estudos sobre Antiguidade por vários autores, a exemplo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hall (1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">2002</xref>). A própria definição de etnicidade de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hall (2002)</xref>, a meu ver, é apropriada para descrever quase todos os exemplos de racismo ou protorracismo aludidos pela historiografia revisionista no que tange à Grécia antiga. Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hall (2002</xref>, p. 9-19), os seguintes elementos são decisivos para a definição de um grupo étnico: um mito compartilhado de ascendência; a associação do grupo com um território específico; o sentimento de uma história em comum.</p>
			<p>É crucial, portanto, diferenciar racismo de etnicidade e etnocentrismo. Etnocentrismo e xenofobia são dois aspectos do mesmo fenômeno: a cultura em questão interpreta as suas diferenças étnicas com outros povos como relações hierárquicas de superioridade e inferioridade. A diferença reside, como observa <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Taguieff (2001</xref>, p. 59), em uma questão de foco: a sociedade etnocêntrica concebe a si própria como o marco superior pelo qual as diferenças culturais devem ser medidas e avaliadas, ao passo que a xenofóbica tende a denigrir e estereotipar o diferente ou o estrangeiro.</p>
			<p>Nesse sentido, o racismo, enquanto modalidade específica pela qual uma sociedade concebe e vivencia suas relações étnicas, carrega as características hierarquizantes do etnocentrismo e da xenofobia, sendo mais estreitamente ligado à ideia essencialista de que certos grupos ou culturas são irremediavelmente inferiores pois pertencem a certos padrões biológicos e/ou geográficos. Nas palavras de Benjamin Braude:</p>
			<disp-quote>
				<p>Ainda mais essencial é a afirmação de que todas as características importantes dos membros da raça são determinadas pela herança física desse grupo. Na visão racista do mundo, não há individualidade humana. Cada indivíduo é apenas uma manifestação inevitável do coletivo ao qual ele/ela pertence, com a natureza desse coletivo sendo determinada por essa hereditariedade compartilhada. O racismo pode sucintamente ser definido como hiperdeterminismo hereditário rígido e coletivo. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Braude, 2011</xref>, p. 42)</p>
			</disp-quote>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Braude (2011</xref>), assim, argumenta que uma das principais diferenças entre racismo, de um lado, e xenofobia ou etnocentrismo, de outro, consiste no caráter hereditário do racismo diante de “formas não hereditárias de preconceito cultural” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Braude, 2011</xref>, p. 42), nas quais Braude inclui xenofobia e etnocentrismo.</p>
			<p>Assim, o mito da autoctonia pode ser interpretado como um recurso étnico de criação de identidade coletiva que estabelece fronteiras entre quem está incluído e quem está excluído do grupo étnico, precisamente por apelar a ascendência, território e história comuns. Interpretar a autoctonia como uma ideologia de racialização de grupos humanos significaria erigir a lógica da raça, hereditariedade de traços coletivos, como o principal meio pelo qual os atenienses definiriam os incluídos em sua etnia e cidadania e os excluídos.</p>
			<p>Ainda que não se possa descartar por completo formas de determinismo hereditário nas fontes gregas, a imagem mais difundida nas obras do período clássico consiste em modalidades “não hereditárias de preconceito cultural”. É nesse sentido que se entende a ênfase de certos autores gregos no valor do aprendizado e da educação (<italic>paideia</italic>) no desenvolvimento do indivíduo e das cidades, justamente pelo fato de que não era comum a ideia de uma natureza humana imune à <italic>paideia</italic>. Assim, na Grécia antiga, a raça não consistia no principal critério de identidade étnica, pois os atenienses e os demais gregos, como já largamente demonstrado (por exemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Ferreira, 1992</xref>), tendiam a pensar a si mesmos etnicamente usando características culturais. Essa lógica é distinta das sociedades racistas que utilizam o fenótipo (imutável, genético) como principal indicativo étnico, como nota <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Van Den Berghe (1981</xref>, p. 240-241).</p>
			<p>Gostaria de terminar apontando alguns limites deste estudo, assim como possíveis caminhos para aprofundar a análise sobre o tema do racismo na Antiguidade clássica. Por razões de espaço, este trabalho focou a relação entre o mito da autoctonia e a lei de cidadania ateniense de 451/450. Assim, não foram discutidas, por exemplo, duas problemáticas importantes a ter em conta para se decidir se é legítimo usar o léxico do racismo para a Grécia antiga. A primeira diz respeito a como o historiador avalia a presença de determinismo biológico e geográfico nos primeiros tratados médicos e geográficos de gregos e romanos, a exemplo da obra grega <italic>Ares, águas e lugares</italic>, atribuída a Hipócrates e provavelmente escrita na segunda metade do século V. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>) explora essas fontes, pois considera que tais tratados fornecem uma clara vinculação determinista entre a geografia de um lugar e as características morais e sociais dos indivíduos desse local. Para ele, essa lógica é (proto) racista.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19"><sup>19</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>A segunda discussão negligenciada no presente artigo reside na análise do estatuto real dos residentes estrangeiros em Atenas, os <italic>metecos</italic>. Se, como argumenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010</xref>), Atenas promoveu uma cidadania racial às expensas dos estrangeiros, vale a pena reabrir esse debate para saber até que ponto os <italic>metecos</italic> podem ser considerados vítimas sistemáticas de racismo.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20"><sup>20</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Futuras investigações, portanto, podem repensar esses temas com base no trabalho provocador dessa recente linha historiográfica que almeja mostrar traços de continuidade entre racismo antigo e moderno, alterando nossa visão da origem do racismo, assim como da maneira como os povos antigos concebiam a si mesmos enquanto coletivos étnicos.</p>
			<p>Dado que escrevemos História (o texto do historiador) utilizando conceitos modernos - como globalização, gênero, classe social, partido político, a ideia de progresso -, é sempre uma escolha delicada do historiador da Antiguidade a decisão de os usar. Enquanto historiadores, precisamos reconhecer a impossibilidade de uma História totalmente feita na ótica dos antigos e, ao mesmo tempo, como escreve <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Loraux ([1992]2006b)</xref>, necessitamos estratégias que controlem os anacronismos. Uma das maneiras de controlar o anacronismo em relação a esse tópico, na minha opinião, é ser muito cauteloso com o uso do conceito moderno de racismo para o mundo antigo. Não estou convencido de que o “medo da diversidade” dos antigos gregos possa ser satisfatoriamente explicado utilizando racismo e raça.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Também não julgo que seja a melhor abordagem ampliar a definição de racismo até transformá-la em sinônimo de etnicidade.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>REFERÊNCIAS</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<mixed-citation>ALDROVANDI, Cibele E. V. <italic>Etnicidade, helenicidade e alteridade</italic>: apontamentos sobre a visão do outro e de si mesmo no mundo antigo. São Paulo: Labeca: MAE/USP, 2010.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ALDROVANDI</surname>
							<given-names>Cibele E. V.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Etnicidade, helenicidade e alteridade</italic>: apontamentos sobre a visão do outro e de si mesmo no mundo antigo</source>
					<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Labeca: MAE/USP</publisher-name>
					<year>2010</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<mixed-citation>ARISTÓTELES. <italic>A Constituição dos Atenienses</italic>. Tradução de Delfim Ferreira Leão. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ARISTÓTELES</surname>
							<given-names/>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>A Constituição dos Atenienses</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Leão</surname>
							<given-names>Delfim Ferreira</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>Lisboa</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian</publisher-name>
					<year>2011</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<mixed-citation>ARISTÓTELES. <italic>Retórica</italic>. Tradução de Manuel Alexandre Júnior et al. Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1998.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ARISTÓTELES</surname>
							<given-names/>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Retórica</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Alexandre</surname>
							<given-names>Manuel</given-names>
							<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
						</name>
						<etal/>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>Lisboa</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda</publisher-name>
					<year>1998</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<mixed-citation>BETHENCOURT, Francisco. <italic>Racisms</italic>: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>BETHENCOURT</surname>
							<given-names>Francisco</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Racisms</italic>: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2013</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Book Review: <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>, by S. Lape. <italic>Mnemosyne</italic>, v. 67, p. 869-873, 2014.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>BLOK</surname>
							<given-names>Josine</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Book Review: Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy, by S. Lape</article-title>
					<source>Mnemosyne</source>
					<volume>67</volume>
					<fpage>869</fpage>
					<lpage>873</lpage>
					<year>2014</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Gentrifying Genealogy: On the Genesis of the Athenian Autochthony Myth. In: DILL, Ueli; WALDE, Christine (ed.). <italic>Antike Mythen</italic>: Medien, Transformationen, und Konstruktionen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009a.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>BLOK</surname>
							<given-names>Josine</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Gentrifying Genealogy: On the Genesis of the Athenian Autochthony Myth</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>DILL</surname>
							<given-names>Ueli</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>WALDE</surname>
							<given-names>Christine</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Antike Mythen</italic>: Medien, Transformationen, und Konstruktionen</source>
					<publisher-loc>Berlin</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Walter de Gruyter</publisher-name>
					<year>2009</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Perikles’ Citizenship Law: A New Perspective. <italic>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</italic>, v. 58, n. 2, p. 141-170, 2009b.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>BLOK</surname>
							<given-names>Josine</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Perikles’ Citizenship Law: A New Perspective</article-title>
					<source>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</source>
					<volume>58</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>141</fpage>
					<lpage>170</lpage>
					<year>2009</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<mixed-citation>BRAUDE, Benjamin. Why Racism Arose in Europe and Why it Did Not in the Near East. In: BERG, Manfred; WENDT, Simon (ed.). <italic>Racism in the Modern World</italic>: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation. New York: Berghahn Books, 2011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>BRAUDE</surname>
							<given-names>Benjamin</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Why Racism Arose in Europe and Why it Did Not in the Near East</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>BERG</surname>
							<given-names>Manfred</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>WENDT</surname>
							<given-names>Simon</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Racism in the Modern World</italic>: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Berghahn Books</publisher-name>
					<year>2011</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<mixed-citation>CAMPOS, Luiz Augusto. Racismo em três dimensões: uma abordagem realista-crítica. <italic>Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais</italic>, v. 32, n. 95, p. 1-19, 2017.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>CAMPOS</surname>
							<given-names>Luiz Augusto</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Racismo em três dimensões: uma abordagem realista-crítica</article-title>
					<source>Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais</source>
					<volume>32</volume>
					<issue>95</issue>
					<fpage>1</fpage>
					<lpage>19</lpage>
					<year>2017</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<mixed-citation>CASEVITZ, Michel. Sur la notion de mélange en grec ancien (<italic>mixobarbare</italic> ou <italic>mixhellène</italic> ?). <italic>Mélanges Étienne Bernand</italic>, Besançon: Université de Franche-Comté, 1991.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>CASEVITZ</surname>
							<given-names>Michel</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Sur la notion de mélange en grec ancien (<italic>mixobarbare</italic> ou <italic>mixhellène</italic> ?). <italic>Mélanges Étienne Bernand</italic></source>
					<publisher-loc>Besançon</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Université de Franche-Comté</publisher-name>
					<year>1991</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B11">
				<mixed-citation>COHEN, Edward. <italic>The Athenian Nation</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>COHEN</surname>
							<given-names>Edward</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Athenian Nation</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2000</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B12">
				<mixed-citation>DAVIES, John K. Athenian Citizenship, the Descent Group and the Alternatives. <italic>The Classical Journal</italic>, v. 73, n. 2, p. 105-121, 1977-1978.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>DAVIES</surname>
							<given-names>John K.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Athenian Citizenship, the Descent Group and the Alternatives</article-title>
					<source>The Classical Journal</source>
					<volume>73</volume>
					<issue>2</issue>
					<fpage>105</fpage>
					<lpage>121</lpage>
					<season>197-</season>
					<year>1978</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B13">
				<mixed-citation>DE STE. CROIX, Geoffrey. <italic>Athenian Democratic Origins and Other Essays</italic>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>DE STE. CROIX</surname>
							<given-names>Geoffrey</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Athenian Democratic Origins and Other Essays</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2004</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B14">
				<mixed-citation>ERICKSEN, Thomas H. <italic>Ethnicity and Nationalism</italic>: Anthropological Perspectives. [1994]. 3rd ed. New York: Pluto Press, 2010.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ERICKSEN</surname>
							<given-names>Thomas H.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Ethnicity and Nationalism</italic>: Anthropological Perspectives</source>
					<comment>[1994]</comment>
					<edition>3rd</edition>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pluto Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2010</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B15">
				<mixed-citation>FENTON, Steve. <italic>Ethnicity</italic>: Racism, Class and Culture. London: Macmillan, 1999.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>FENTON</surname>
							<given-names>Steve</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Ethnicity</italic>: Racism, Class and Culture</source>
					<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Macmillan</publisher-name>
					<year>1999</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B16">
				<mixed-citation>FERREIRA, José Ribeiro. <italic>Hélade e Helenos</italic>: génese e evolução de um conceito. Coimbra: Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica, 1992.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>FERREIRA</surname>
							<given-names>José Ribeiro</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Hélade e Helenos</italic>: génese e evolução de um conceito</source>
					<publisher-loc>Coimbra</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica</publisher-name>
					<year>1992</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B17">
				<mixed-citation>FREDRICKSON, George M. <italic>Racism</italic>: a Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>FREDRICKSON</surname>
							<given-names>George M.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Racism</italic>: a Short History</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2002</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B18">
				<mixed-citation>GUIMARÃES, Antônio Sérgio A. Preconceito de cor e racismo no Brasil. <italic>Revista de Antropologia</italic>, São Paulo: USP, v. 47, n. 1, p. 9-43, 2004.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>GUIMARÃES</surname>
							<given-names>Antônio Sérgio A.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Preconceito de cor e racismo no Brasil</article-title>
					<source>Revista de Antropologia</source>
					<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>USP</publisher-name>
					<volume>47</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>9</fpage>
					<lpage>43</lpage>
					<year>2004</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B19">
				<mixed-citation>GRUEN, Erich. S. <italic>Rethinking the Other in Antiquity</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>GRUEN</surname>
							<given-names>Erich. S.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Rethinking the Other in Antiquity</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2011</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B20">
				<mixed-citation>HALL, Edith. <italic>Inventing the Barbarian</italic>: Greek Self-Definition through Tragedy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HALL</surname>
							<given-names>Edith</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Inventing the Barbarian</italic>: Greek Self-Definition through Tragedy</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1989</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B21">
				<mixed-citation>HALL, Jonathan. <italic>Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity</italic>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HALL</surname>
							<given-names>Jonathan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity</source>
					<publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1997</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B22">
				<mixed-citation>HALL, Jonathan. <italic>Hellenicity</italic>: Between Ethnicity and Culture. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HALL</surname>
							<given-names>Jonathan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Hellenicity</italic>: Between Ethnicity and Culture</source>
					<publisher-loc>Chicago</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Chicago University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2002</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B23">
				<mixed-citation>HANNAFORD, Ivan. <italic>Race</italic>: The History of an Idea in the West. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HANNAFORD</surname>
							<given-names>Ivan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Race</italic>: The History of an Idea in the West</source>
					<publisher-loc>Baltimore, MD</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Johns Hopkins University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1996</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B24">
				<mixed-citation>HIGNETT, Charles. <italic>A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C</italic>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HIGNETT</surname>
							<given-names>Charles</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C</italic>.</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1952</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B25">
				<mixed-citation>HUMPHREYS, Sarah C. The <italic>nothoi</italic> of Kynosarges. <italic>Journal of Hellenic Studies</italic>, v. 94, p. 88-95, 1974.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>HUMPHREYS</surname>
							<given-names>Sarah C.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The nothoi of Kynosarges</article-title>
					<source>Journal of Hellenic Studies</source>
					<volume>94</volume>
					<fpage>88</fpage>
					<lpage>95</lpage>
					<year>1974</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B26">
				<mixed-citation>ISAAC, Benjamin. <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ISAAC</surname>
							<given-names>Benjamin</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2004</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B27">
				<mixed-citation>KAGAN, Donald. <italic>The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</italic>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>KAGAN</surname>
							<given-names>Donald</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>T<bold>he Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</bold></source>
					<publisher-loc>Ithaca, NY</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Cornell University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1969</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B28">
				<mixed-citation>KAMTEKAR, Rachana. Distinction without a Difference? Race and Genos in Plato. In: WARD, Julie K.; LOTT, Tommy L. (ed.). <italic>Philosophers on Race</italic>: Critical Essays. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>KAMTEKAR</surname>
							<given-names>Rachana</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Distinction without a Difference? Race and Genos in Plato</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>WARD</surname>
							<given-names>Julie K.</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>LOTT</surname>
							<given-names>Tommy L.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Philosophers on Race</italic>: Critical Essays</source>
					<publisher-loc>Malden, MA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name>
					<year>2002</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B29">
				<mixed-citation>KENNEDY, Rebecca F. Airs, Waters, Metals, Earth: People and environment in Archaic and classical Greek thought. In: KENNEDY, Rebecca F.; JONES-LEWIS, Molly (ed.). <italic>The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds</italic>. London: Routledge, 2016.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>KENNEDY</surname>
							<given-names>Rebecca F.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Airs, Waters, Metals, Earth: People and environment in Archaic and classical Greek thought</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>KENNEDY</surname>
							<given-names>Rebecca F.</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>JONES-LEWIS</surname>
							<given-names>Molly</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds</source>
					<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name>
					<year>2016</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B30">
				<mixed-citation>LAPE, Susan. <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LAPE</surname>
							<given-names>Susan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</source>
					<publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2010</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B31">
				<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. Autoctonia, filiação legítima e cidadania no <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides. <italic>Humanitas</italic>, v. 63, p. 105-122, 2011.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LEÃO</surname>
							<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Autoctonia, filiação legítima e cidadania no Íon de Eurípides</article-title>
					<source>Humanitas</source>
					<volume>63</volume>
					<fpage>105</fpage>
					<lpage>122</lpage>
					<year>2011</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B32">
				<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. Cidadania, autoctonia e posse de terra na Atenas democrática. <italic>Cadmo</italic>, v. 20, p. 445-464, 2010.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LEÃO</surname>
							<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Cidadania, autoctonia e posse de terra na Atenas democrática</article-title>
					<source>Cadmo</source>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<fpage>445</fpage>
					<lpage>464</lpage>
					<year>2010</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B33">
				<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. The Myth of Autochthony, Athenian Citizenship and the Right of Enktesis: A Legal Approach to Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic>. In: LEGRAS, Bernard; THÜR, Gerhard (hrsg.). <italic>Symposion 2011</italic>: Vorträge zur griechischen und hellenistischen Rechtsgeschichte. Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2012.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="confproc">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LEÃO</surname>
							<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Myth of Autochthony, Athenian Citizenship and the Right of Enktesis: A Legal Approach to Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic></source>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>LEGRAS</surname>
							<given-names>Bernard</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>THÜR</surname>
							<given-names>Gerhard</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<conf-name>Symposion 2011: Vorträge zur griechischen und hellenistischen Rechtsgeschichte</conf-name>
					<publisher-loc>Wien</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften</publisher-name>
					<year>2012</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B34">
				<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. <italic>Born of the Earth</italic>: Myth and Politics in Athens. Translated by Selina Stewart. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LORAUX</surname>
							<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Born of the Earth</italic>: Myth and Politics in Athens</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Stewart</surname>
							<given-names>Selina</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>Ithaca, NY</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Cornell University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2000</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B35">
				<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. Elogio do anacronismo. [1992]. In: NOVAES, Adauto (org.). <italic>Tempo e História</italic>. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2006b.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LORAUX</surname>
							<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Elogio do anacronismo</chapter-title>
					<comment>[1992]</comment>
					<person-group person-group-type="compiler">
						<name>
							<surname>NOVAES</surname>
							<given-names>Adauto</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Tempo e História</source>
					<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Companhia das Letras</publisher-name>
					<year>2006</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B36">
				<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. The Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Classical City. [1981]. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Zone Books, 2006a.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>LORAUX</surname>
							<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Classical City</source>
					<comment>[1981]</comment>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Sheridan</surname>
							<given-names>Alan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Zone Books</publisher-name>
					<year>2006</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B37">
				<mixed-citation>MANVILLE, Philip B. <italic>The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MANVILLE</surname>
							<given-names>Philip B.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens</source>
					<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1990</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B38">
				<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. Naming the Fault in Question: Theorizing Racism among the Greeks and Romans. <italic>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</italic>, v. 13, p. 243-267, 2006.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
							<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Naming the Fault in Question: Theorizing Racism among the Greeks and Romans</article-title>
					<source>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</source>
					<volume>13</volume>
					<fpage>243</fpage>
					<lpage>267</lpage>
					<year>2006</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B39">
				<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. <italic>Race</italic>: Antiquity and its Legacy. London: IB Tauris, 2012.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
							<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Race</italic>: Antiquity and its Legacy</source>
					<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>IB Tauris</publisher-name>
					<year>2012</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B40">
				<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. Race Before ‘Whiteness’: Studying Identity in Ptolemaic Egypt. <italic>Critical Sociology</italic>, v. 28, p. 13-39, 2002.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
							<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Race Before ‘Whiteness’: Studying Identity in Ptolemaic Egypt</article-title>
					<source>Critical Sociology</source>
					<volume>28</volume>
					<fpage>13</fpage>
					<lpage>39</lpage>
					<year>2002</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B41">
				<mixed-citation>MICHEL, Aurélia. <italic>Un monde en nègre et blanc</italic>: enquête historique sur l’ordre racial. Paris: Points, 2020.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MICHEL</surname>
							<given-names>Aurélia</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Un monde en nègre et blanc</italic>: enquête historique sur l’ordre racial</source>
					<publisher-loc>Paris</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Points</publisher-name>
					<year>2020</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B42">
				<mixed-citation>MORALES, Fábio. <italic>A Democracia Ateniense pelo avesso</italic>: os metecos e a política nos discursos de Lísias. São Paulo: Edusp, 2014.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>MORALES</surname>
							<given-names>Fábio</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>A Democracia Ateniense pelo avesso</italic>: os metecos e a política nos discursos de Lísias</source>
					<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Edusp</publisher-name>
					<year>2014</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B43">
				<mixed-citation>OGDEN, Daniel. <italic>Greek Bastardy in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods</italic>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>OGDEN</surname>
							<given-names>Daniel</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Greek Bastardy in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods</source>
					<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1996</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B44">
				<mixed-citation>PATTERSON, Cynthia. <italic>Pericles’ Citizenship Law of 451-50 B.C</italic>. New York: Arno Classical Monographs, 1981.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>PATTERSON</surname>
							<given-names>Cynthia</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Pericles’ Citizenship Law of 451-50 B.C</italic>.</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Arno Classical Monographs</publisher-name>
					<year>1981</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B45">
				<mixed-citation>PELLING, Christopher. Bringing Autochthony Up-to-Date: Herodotus and Thucydides. <italic>The Classical World</italic>, v. 102, n. 4, p. 471-483, 2009.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>PELLING</surname>
							<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Bringing Autochthony Up-to-Date: Herodotus and Thucydides</article-title>
					<source>The Classical World</source>
					<volume>102</volume>
					<issue>4</issue>
					<fpage>471</fpage>
					<lpage>483</lpage>
					<year>2009</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B46">
				<mixed-citation>PLATÃO. <italic>Menêxeno</italic>. Tradução de Bruna Camara. 2014. Dissertação (Mestrado em Letras Clássicas) - FFLCH, Universidade de São Paulo (USP). São Paulo, 2014.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="thesis">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>PLATÃO</surname>
							<given-names/>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Menêxeno</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Camara</surname>
							<given-names>Bruna</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<year>2014</year>
					<comment content-type="degree">Mestrado em Letras Clássicas</comment>
					<publisher-name>FFLCH, Universidade de São Paulo</publisher-name>
					<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B47">
				<mixed-citation>ROSIVACH, Vincent J. Autochthony and the Athenians. <italic>Classical Quarterly</italic>, v. 37, p. 234-305, 1987.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ROSIVACH</surname>
							<given-names>Vincent J.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Autochthony and the Athenians</article-title>
					<source>Classical Quarterly</source>
					<volume>37</volume>
					<fpage>234</fpage>
					<lpage>305</lpage>
					<year>1987</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B48">
				<mixed-citation>SHAPIRO, Alan. Autochthony and the Visual Arts in Fifth-Century Athens. In: BOEDEKER, Deborah; RAAFLAUB, Kurt A. (ed.). <italic>Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</italic>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>SHAPIRO</surname>
							<given-names>Alan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Autochthony and the Visual Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>BOEDEKER</surname>
							<given-names>Deborah</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>RAAFLAUB</surname>
							<given-names>Kurt A.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</source>
					<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1998</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B49">
				<mixed-citation>SIVANANDAN, Ambalavaner. <italic>Catching History on the Wing</italic>: Race, Culture and Globalisation. New York: Pluto Press, 2008.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>SIVANANDAN</surname>
							<given-names>Ambalavaner</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Catching History on the Wing</italic>: Race, Culture and Globalisation</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Pluto Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2008</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B50">
				<mixed-citation>SNOWDEN, Frank. <italic>Before Color Prejudice</italic>: The Ancient View of Blacks. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>SNOWDEN</surname>
							<given-names>Frank</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Before Color Prejudice</italic>: The Ancient View of Blacks</source>
					<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1983</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B51">
				<mixed-citation>SNOWDEN, Frank. <italic>Blacks in Antiquity</italic>: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>SNOWDEN</surname>
							<given-names>Frank</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Blacks in Antiquity</italic>: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience</source>
					<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1970</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B52">
				<mixed-citation>TAGUIEFF, Pierre-André. <italic>The Force of Prejudice</italic>: On Racism and its Doubles. Translated and Edited by Hassan Melehy. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2001.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>TAGUIEFF</surname>
							<given-names>Pierre-André</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>The Force of Prejudice</italic>: On Racism and its Doubles</source>
					<person-group person-group-type="translator">
						<name>
							<surname>Melehy</surname>
							<given-names>Hassan</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<publisher-loc>Minneapolis, MN</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>University of Minnesota Press</publisher-name>
					<year>2001</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B53">
				<mixed-citation>THOMPSON, Lloyd. <italic>Romans and Blacks</italic>. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>THOMPSON</surname>
							<given-names>Lloyd</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Romans and Blacks</source>
					<publisher-loc>Norman, OK</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>University of Oklahoma Press</publisher-name>
					<year>1989</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B54">
				<mixed-citation>TRIVIGNO, Franco V. The Rhetoric of Parody in Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>. <italic>Philosophy and Rhetoric</italic>, v. 42, n. 1, p. 29-58, 2009.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>TRIVIGNO</surname>
							<given-names>Franco V.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The Rhetoric of Parody in Plato’s Menexenus</article-title>
					<source>Philosophy and Rhetoric</source>
					<volume>42</volume>
					<issue>1</issue>
					<fpage>29</fpage>
					<lpage>58</lpage>
					<year>2009</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B55">
				<mixed-citation>TUPLIN, Christopher. Book Review: <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>, by Benjamin Isaac. <italic>Ancient West and East</italic>, p. 327-338, 2007.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>TUPLIN</surname>
							<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Book Review: <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>, by Benjamin Isaac. <italic>Ancient West and East</italic></source>
					<fpage>327</fpage>
					<lpage>338</lpage>
					<year>2007</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B56">
				<mixed-citation>TUPLIN, Christopher. Greek Racism? Observations on the Character and Limits of Greek Ethnic Prejudice. In: TSETSKHLADZE, Gocha R. (ed.). <italic>Ancient Greeks East and West</italic>. Leiden: Brill, 1999.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>TUPLIN</surname>
							<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<chapter-title>Greek Racism? Observations on the Character and Limits of Greek Ethnic Prejudice</chapter-title>
					<person-group person-group-type="editor">
						<name>
							<surname>TSETSKHLADZE</surname>
							<given-names>Gocha R.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>Ancient Greeks East and West</source>
					<publisher-loc>Leiden</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Brill</publisher-name>
					<year>1999</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B57">
				<mixed-citation>VAN DEN BERGHE, Pierre L. <italic>The Ethnic Phenomenon</italic>. New York: Elsevier, 1981.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>VAN DEN BERGHE</surname>
							<given-names>Pierre L.</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source>The Ethnic Phenomenon</source>
					<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
					<year>1981</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B58">
				<mixed-citation>ZACHARIA, Katerina. <italic>Converging Truths</italic>: Euripides’ Ion and the Athenian Quest for Self-Definition. Leiden: Brill, 2003.</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="book">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>ZACHARIA</surname>
							<given-names>Katerina</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<source><italic>Converging Truths</italic>: Euripides’ Ion and the Athenian Quest for Self-Definition</source>
					<publisher-loc>Leiden</publisher-loc>
					<publisher-name>Brill</publisher-name>
					<year>2003</year>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
		<fn-group>
			<title>NOTAS</title>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label>1</label>
				<p>Trabalho financiado pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo processos nos 2018/17414-6; 2019/07542-0. Gostaria de agradecer a Xavier Riu e Jaume Pòrtulas (Universitat de Barcelona), bem como a Richard Seaford (University of Exeter), por terem discutido comigo as ideias deste artigo.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
				<label>2</label>
				<p>A ideia segundo a qual os seres humanos são divididos em raças, obviamente, não se sustenta do ponto de vista genético e biológico, porém o conceito possui relevância sociológica para explicar a ação de pessoas que utilizam, conscientemente ou não, essa noção para agir de maneira racista. Raça é um constructo cultural, ainda que sua definição, normalmente, guarde relação (imaginária) com aspectos biológicos dos grupos humanos. Sobre esse tópico, ver, por exemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Ericksen, ([1994]2010</xref>, p. 6).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
				<label>3</label>
				<p>Ver, ainda, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fredrickson (2002</xref>, p. 17-47). As traduções das citações dos autores modernos são minhas.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
				<label>4</label>
				<p>Neste artigo, limito o termo Antiguidade ou Antiguidade clássica para se referir a Grécia e Roma antigas.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
				<label>5</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Aldrovandi (2010)</xref> passa em revista alguns dos mais importantes estudos sobre etnicidade na Grécia antiga. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Gruen (2011)</xref> destaca exemplos de contatos e mesmo de admiração de estrangeiros pelos gregos.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
				<label>6</label>
				<p>As datas relativas à Antiguidade neste artigo são sempre antes de Cristo.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
				<label>7</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Guimarães (2004)</xref> avalia que “a reprodução ampliada das desigualdades raciais no Brasil coexiste com a suavização crescente das atitudes e dos comportamentos racistas” (p. 33). Vale investigar, contudo, se a recente emergência do governo de Jair Bolsonaro no Brasil está contribuindo para o aumento de discursos e atitudes explicitamente racistas no país.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
				<label>8</label>
				<p>A construção mítico-ideológica da autoctonia aparece em diversos tipos de fontes durante os séculos V e IV: na pintura de vasos de cerâmica, em Heródoto e Tucídides (ainda que esses autores não qualifiquem os atenienses como autóctones), em Isocrátes, Lísias e Demóstenes, em Platão, particularmente no diálogo Menêxeno, nos discursos em honra aos soldados atenienses mortos em batalha (Orações Fúnebres) e na poesia dramática, especialmente nas tragédias Íon e Erecteu, ambas de Eurípides. Para uma visão de conjunto do mito da autoctonia, além de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Loraux ([1981]2006a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">2000</xref>), ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Leão (2010)</xref> que, similarmente a Lape, desenvolve uma narrativa relacionando autoctonia e cidadania, mas, diferentemente dela, não pensa que o objetivo da lei de cidadania de 451-450 residiu na proteção da pureza racial dos atenienses.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
				<label>9</label>
				<p>É impossível reabrir, neste artigo, a discussão sobre as várias interpretações acerca da lei de cidadania. O leitor que quiser saber mais sobre essa controvérsia pode consultar os comentários feitos por Peter Rhodes em <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">De Ste. Croix (2004</xref>, p. 251-253), assim como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Blok (2009b)</xref>, que serviu de base para o agrupamento das interpretações proposto neste trabalho.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn10">
				<label>10</label>
				<p>É sintomático que importantes volumes sobre a cidadania grega entre 1980 e 2000, como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Manville (1990)</xref>, sequer mencionam a palavra racismo. Uma exceção, contudo, é <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Ogden (1996)</xref>, que lê a autoctonia como uma ideologia de promoção racial e a lei de cidadania de 451/450 como a manifestação concreta dessa ideologia, de maneira similar a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004)</xref> e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lape (2010)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn11">
				<label>11</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blok (2009a)</xref> discute uma parte das mesmas fontes de Lape acerca da autoctonia, mas chega a conclusões distintas, negando que a ênfase do mito seja a promoção da pureza “racial”. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Pelling (2009)</xref> analisa esse tópico em Heródoto e Tucídides, destacando como o mito era ambíguo e elástico o suficiente para ser usado com sentidos distintos consoante a ocasião e o gênero discursivo. O tema da autoctonia no <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides tem numerosa bibliografia. Particularmente úteis são <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Zacharia (2003)</xref> e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Leão (2012)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn12">
				<label>12</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Shapiro (1998)</xref> explora o tema da autoctonia nas artes visuais e também avalia que a versão integral do mito da autoctonia deve ser datada na segunda metade do século V, como uma resposta ideológica de Atenas às necessidades da sua democracia e ao seu papel hegemônico na liga de Delos. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Blok (2009a</xref>, p. 261) argumenta que os primeiros sinais da combinação dos dois sentidos de <italic>autochthon</italic> apenas se percebem nas últimas duas décadas do século V, especialmente com duas peças euripidianas, <italic>Íon</italic> e <italic>Erecteu</italic>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn13">
				<label>13</label>
				<p>Os argumentos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Rosivach (1987)</xref> são descritos em <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 114-115, n. 220), mas não verdadeiramente tidos em linha de conta na visão que Isaac propõe da relação entre o mito da autoctonia e a lei de cidadania. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Patterson (1981)</xref> dedica boa parte do quarto capítulo do seu livro a uma contraposição dessa leitura “racial” da lei proposta por Péricles.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn14">
				<label>14</label>
				<p>Por racialização eu entendo a atividade de certos agentes sociais em transformar um grupo de indivíduos em uma “raça”. Em outros termos, racialização pode ser vista como o “processo [social] de encarar diferenças físicas como marcadores sociais e, tipicamente, reforçá-los por meio de um regime de opressão” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">FENTON, 1999</xref>, p. 66).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn15">
				<label>15</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Isaac (2004)</xref> concentra-se demasiadamente na dimensão ideológica do que ele qualifica como protorracismo: “Este trabalho não é concernido com o tratamento real relativamente aos estrangeiros na Grécia e Roma, mas com opiniões e conceitos encontrados na literatura” (p. 2). Sobre os aspectos ideológicos, práticos e estruturais do racismo, ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Campos (2017)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn16">
				<label>16</label>
				<p>Sobre a divergência entre as leituras sérias e irônicas do <italic>Menêxeno</italic> de Platão, ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Trivigno (2009)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn17">
				<label>17</label>
				<p>Diferentemente de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Kamtekar (2002</xref>, p. 3), não penso que o passo 692e-693a das <italic>Leis</italic> de Platão seja similar a <italic>Menêxeno</italic> 245c-d em termos de ênfase em pureza racial e ansiedade relativamente à miscigenação. Em <italic>Erecteu</italic> de Eurípides, lemos que os atenienses são autóctones em contraste com outros povos migrantes (fragmento 360, versos 1-13). O <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides contém uma afirmação similar: os atenienses são autóctones e, portanto, não vieram de fora da Ática (versos 585-594). Não há, contudo, nada similar nessas passagens à coleção de termos para linhagem e ódio aos bárbaros que existe no passo em discussão do <italic>Menêxeno</italic> de Platão. Além disso, vale notar que tampouco existe esse tipo de articulação entre autoctonia, sangue e pureza na famosa Oração Fúnebre atribuída a Péricles por Tucídides (2.36-41).</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn18">
				<label>18</label>
				<p>Sobre os termos em grego antigo que denotam um estágio intermédio entre grego e bárbaro, como <italic>meixobarbaros</italic> ou <italic>mixellēnes</italic> (“metade heleno”), ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Casevitz (1991)</xref>. Para a oposição entre grego e bárbaro na cultura grega antiga, consultar <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hall (1989)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn19">
				<label>19</label>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Kennedy (2016)</xref> debate como os tratados médicos e etnográficos gregos tentaram extrair traços culturais de grupos humanos a partir das características climáticas e geográficas de determinado ambiente.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn20">
				<label>20</label>
				<p>Sobre a dialética entre realidade e representação em torno dos <italic>metecos</italic> na democracia ateniense, ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Morales (2014)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn21">
				<label>21</label>
				<p>Nesse caso eu concordo com outros estudiosos que igualmente não se sentem persuadidos por essa recente defesa do uso de (proto) racismo na Antiguidade: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Tuplin (2007)</xref> e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Blok (2014)</xref>.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>DOSSIER: ANCIENT HISTORY BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL: INTEGRATION, CONFLICT, AND USES OF THE PAST</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>The Fear of Social Interaction:A Historiographical Essay on Ethnocentrism and Racism in Ancient Greece<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn22"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2036-6491</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Jácome</surname>
						<given-names>Félix</given-names>
						<suffix>Neto</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>*</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil. felixjacome@hotmail.com</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT</title>
				
			</abstract>
			
			<funding-group>
				<award-group award-type="contract">
					<funding-source>Research funded by São Paulo Research Foundation</funding-source>
					<award-id>2018/17414-6</award-id>
					<award-id>2019/07542-0</award-id>
				</award-group>
				<funding-statement>Research funded by São Paulo Research Foundation (Fapesp), process numbers 2018/17414-6; 2019/07542-0. I would like to thank Xavier Riu and Jaume Pòrtulas (Universitat de Barcelona), and Richard Seaford (University of Exeter), for having discussed with me the ideas of this paper.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>Most authors who trace the history of racism emphasise the modernity of this notion. According to this view, racism is the result of a particular historical context characterised by the European experience of colonisation between the 17th and 19th centuries, as well as by the formulation of Darwin’s theory of evolution, and the “science of human races” that would explain the development of the supposed human races.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn23"><sup>2</sup></xref> Thus, the logic of deriving cultural and moral characteristics from phenotypic and biological marks is typical of the racist thought that emerged in European modernity. </p>
			<p>In this perspective, racism would be an unknown experience in Antiquity. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Hannaford (1996</xref>), for example, dedicates three chapters to the ancient world in his history of racism and concludes that “there was a remarkable <italic>absence</italic> of race as an organising idea during the Greco-Roman period” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Hannaford, 1996</xref>, p. 8). In the history of racism written by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Bethencourt (2013</xref>), we read that, in the Roman world, “there is no evidence of systematic discrimination against distinct ethnical people” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Bethencourt, 2013</xref>, p. 14). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Michel (2020</xref>), “it is necessary to conclude, therefore, that the idea of race does not precede European slavery or justifies it” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Michel, 2020</xref>, p. 19).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn24"><sup>3</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>In addition to the argument of racism as a particular historical experience linked to the development of European society and modern slave trade, as emphasised by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Michel (2020</xref>), another essential reason for the hegemonic conclusion that race and racism are notions alien to the classical world lies in the influence of the research project carried out by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">Snowden (1970</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">1983</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Thompson (1989</xref>), both experts in Ancient History. Snowden, an African-American who studied literary and artistic sources from Antiquity<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn25"><sup>4</sup></xref> concerning sub-Saharan black peoples, concluded that skin colour was not viewed as a fundamental element of inferiority that would condemn dark-skinned individuals to possess an innate set of negative moral and social characteristics. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Thompson (1989)</xref>, who taught at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria, conceded that Romans made derogatory remarks towards dark-skinned people, but emphasised that those expressions are not related with the modern phenomenon of race and distinct from those described by social scientists as racism (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">Thompson, 1989</xref>, p. 157).</p>
			<p>However, recent historiography has challenged this negative conclusion of racism in classical Antiquity, and one of its leading challengers argues that the almost consensus on the non-applicability of the concept of racism to Antiquity has led readers to believe that no sort of racial structure would have existed in Greece and Rome, hampering the understanding of these societies (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">McCoskey, 2012</xref>, p. 9). Denise McCoskey believes that using the concepts of ethnicity and ethnic relations to explain the connections and cultural conflicts between human groups in Antiquity - as historians have been doing for 25 years - is insufficient.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn26"><sup>5</sup></xref> She advocates “a return to the concept of race. My recommendation [is] that we revive [the] use of the specific term race to connote the organizing and essentializing operations of identity” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">McCoskey, 2002</xref>, pp. 30-31).</p>
			<p>McCoskey is not alone in this historiographical revision. Her work dialogues with <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>). These studies challenge the orthodoxy of cultural studies in Antiquity that have long assumed that race and racism are inappropriate terms to describe the ancient attitudes to foreign people. Moreover, the thesis of these critics may have significant relevance to the problem of the origins and history of racist thought, given that they state that there is a considerable line of continuity between ancient and modern racism. Therefore, this question has contemporary urgency. We must assess the merits and weaknesses of this historiographical defence of using the lexicon of racism to describe the cultural interactions between different peoples in classical Antiquity.</p>
			<p>Lape focuses mainly on the classical Greek period (5th-4th centuries BC),<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn27"><sup>6</sup></xref> whereas Isaac and McCoskey also analyse the Roman world. However, this article will focus on classical Greek society to delimit the scope, discussing how Isaac and Lape read this period, namely, why they decide to apply the terminology related to race and racism instead of the usual notions of ethnicity. Moreover, we will analyse how they interpret the historical sources used to base their arguments.</p>
			<p>This paper will mainly discuss the argumentative core of these experts concerning ancient Greece: the relationship between the myth of the Athenians as an indigenous and autochthones people and the citizenship law approved by the Athenians based on a proposal made by Pericles in 451/450 BC. We will see that <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>) explores those related topics in depth, arguing that the autochthony myth was the ideological aspect of Athenian racism, whereas the citizenship law was its legal and practical manifestation.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>BENJAMIN ISAAC’S PROTO-RACISM AND SUSAN LAPE’S “ATHENIAN RACISM”</title>
				<p>In addition to direct and explicit discrimination against Black people, Western societies present a varied range of bigotry, often subtle, disguised and indirect, extending further than black groups.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn28"><sup>7</sup></xref> In the new multicultural framework of racism, scholars displace the concept of racism from skin colour by emphasising, for example, the discrimination suffered by white immigrants from Eastern Europe or white Syrian refugees in central European countries. In this sense, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">Sivanandan (2008</xref>, p. 167-168) characterises the type of racism that occurs in Europe in the time of globalisation as xeno-racism, that is, a combination of racism and xenophobia, in which racist discrimination appears under the form of a purely xenophobic discourse; an aversion to foreigners that would be independent of physical characteristics.</p>
				<p>The dispensability of skin colour as a criterion for the definition of racism logically expands the possibilities for scholars to apply the concept of racism to Antiquity. Thus, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>, p. 39-40), and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">McCoskey (2012</xref>, p. 10) neglect skin colour as a criterion for defining racism. However, the choice of these authors for dismissing skin colour goes against their intent to show the continuity between ancient and modern racism, as the categories of white and black were a determining factor for the European colonial experience (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Michel, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>In my understanding, Isaac and Lape were not clear enough about the meaning of their books for the academic community. Everything happens as if they want to legitimise the use of the term “racism” for Antiquity without being responsible for this enormous historiographical revision (a criticism also made against Lape by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Blok, 2014</xref>, p. 869). Firstly, the title of Isaac’s book, <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>, leads to misunderstandings because it does not match much of the book’s content. Overall, Isaac’s thesis is that classical Antiquity experienced a form of proto-racism, a more diffuse and less biological determinist type of racism. In the author’s words: “I certainly do not claim that we are dealing here with the speciﬁc form of scientiﬁc racism which was a product of the nineteenth century” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 1). Furthermore, according to Isaac, his work aims to “offer a systematic study of the forms of proto-racism, ethnic prejudice, and xenophobia that are encountered in the ancient literature in Greece and Rome from the ﬁfth century BC till late antiquity” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 2). </p>
				<p>Although Isaac is aware that racism (or proto-racism) is not synonymous with xenophobia (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac, 2004</xref>, pages 23-34), he is not rigorous in the use of these concepts, often treating them as interchangeable. Thus, his book deals “with ambivalence and hostility towards foreigners, strangers, and immigrant minorities” (p. 4). Therefore, Isaac’s book is not about the invention of racism in Antiquity. A more accurate title could be “Ethnic relations, proto-racism and xenophobia in classical Antiquity”. Hence, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004)</xref> is mainly arguing in favour of the strong presence of ethnic and xenophobic tensions in Greece and Rome. In short, Isaac’s detailed work is convincing only when we rearrange his conceptual framework.</p>
				<p>The title of Susan Lape’s book, <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>, is also problematic. The unusual word in the title is, of course, “race”. In the contents of the book, other atypical expressions appear to explain ancient Greek Democracy: “The Sociopolitical Context of Athenian Racism”, “From Autochthony to Race”; “Renewing Racism and Refusing Civil War”. Despite the explicit use of terms such as race and racism - including the unambiguous expression “Athenian racism” -, Lape clarifies: “What must be stressed is that nothing in this project hangs on the use of the term ‘racial’ per se. One might read this entire study substituting ‘ethnic’ or some other less controversial term for ‘racial’” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. ix). This is a surprising statement because if the book’s argument does not depend on terms such as “race” and “racial”, why insert them in its title, topics, and arguments in the first place? If “ethnic” can be a synonym for “racial”, why does Lape argue that “the concepts of racial citizenship and racism offer a better ﬁt than ethnic citizenship” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 37)? Thus, as pointed out by other scholars (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">Tuplin, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Blok, 2014</xref>), the projects of Isaac and Lape are compromised by problems of terminology. </p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>AUTOCHTHONY, PURITY OF THE ATHENIAN “RACE” AND THE CITIZENSHIP LAW OF 451/450 BC</title>
				<p>Isaac and Lape assume that the myth of the Athenians as indigenous people and the citizenship law passed by the Athenians in 451/450 were, respectively, the ideological construct and the practical materiality of racial (for Lape) or proto-racist (for Isaac) ideology of 5th and 4th-century Athens. Let us take a closer look at this interpretation, as it reveals how these scholars read the sources and why they conclude that the attitude of Greeks regarding foreigners can be better explained using the semantic field of racism.</p>
				<p>Similar to other societies - both ancient and contemporary - Athenians built their ethnic identity based on the notion that they formed a “large family” in which all citizens could claim a common ancestry (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Davies, 1977-1978</xref>). Athenians of the classical period believed they had always lived in the same region (Attica), unlike other Greeks, especially Spartans, who were linked by tradition of the Greeks themselves to migratory waves. In the last decades of the 5th century, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Rosivach (1987</xref>) argues, the myth of autochthony would have acquired its complete shape connected to the ambiguity of the Greek term <italic>autochthon</italic>, formed by <italic>auto-</italic> (“same”; “equal”) and <italic>-chthon</italic> (“earth”). Thus, Athenians assumed that they had always lived in the same territory, and were born from the Attic land, similar to their mythical king Erechtheus.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn29"><sup>8</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The way in which the Athenians regarded their origins and their particularities, obviously had practical effects on the political and religious life of the city. If all Athenian citizens were born from the Attic land, they would all have had a noble birth. The autochthonous myth, as some scholars have rightly said (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Loraux, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 26-28), is the democratic response to the emphasis on <italic>eugeneia</italic> (“noble birth”) typical of the Greek aristocratic idea, in which an individual’s value was ranked according to the nobility of their family. In this regard, autochthony democratises noble birth, since all citizens would be distinguished because they were considered children of Athens, regardless of their family or economic resources. Thus, Aristotle remarked in the <italic>Rhetoric</italic>, “Good birth, in the case of a nation or city, is to be autochthonous or ancient and for its ﬁrst inhabitants to have been leaders and have had numerous descendants distinguished in estimable qualities” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Aristotle, 2007</xref>, 1360b, 31-34).</p>
				<p>If the myth of autochthony helped to create and sustain a collective identity among citizens, it also promoted, by the same logic, the exclusion of those who did not fit the indigenous criterion that defined the body of citizens. The proponents of the use of racism in classical Antiquity insist, precisely, on this exclusionary character of the autochthonous ideology, which, according to them, is aggravated by Pericles’ reform of citizenship in 451/450.</p>
				<p>From 451/450, to participate fully in the polis, one had to be the offspring of both mother and father citizens, replacing the previous condition in which the father being a citizen was enough. At first glance, it seems clear that this new law discouraged mixed marriages between Athenians and foreigners. In doing so, this logic favoured marriage between Athenians exclusively, in addition to promoting restriction of the civic body. The ancient sources are almost silent on why Athenians changed citizenship at this precise historical moment. The only reason advanced by ancients is the line written by the author of the <italic>Constitution of the Athenians</italic>: the law was enacted “on account of the large number of citizens” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Aristotle, 2002</xref>, 26.4).</p>
				<p>The Aristotelian explanation for reforming the transmission of civil rights, as several scholars have noted, cannot be read literally. After several years of war against the Persians in the previous decades, there is no suggestion that Attica was experiencing any overpopulation. After dismissing this explanation, experts differ significantly though.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn30"><sup>9</sup></xref> Some think that we should partially retain the Aristotelian phrase, slightly altering the meaning: citizens are numerous, not in absolute terms, but in relative ones, that is, many citizens were participating in specific aspects of the polis, which could be preserved by reducing the body civic. Thus, the idea of the law could be to limit the growing benefits of the nascent Athenian empire to a more restricted group of citizens, in the face of a possible scenario in which citizenship would be more valuable and coveted by foreigners due to cultural and material wealth enjoyed by Athens’ citizens in the middle of the 5th century (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Davies, 1977-1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">Leão, 2011</xref>, p. 107). However, other scholars argue that the Aristotelian sentence reflects the concern of Athenians with the expanding number of citizens originated from mixed marriages, mainly arising from the possible practice of wealthier Athenian men looking for foreign wives to strengthen their bonds with other cities’ elites. Thus, the citizenship law would have been imbued with the democratic spirit of undermining disproportionate forms of power and status stemming from the Athenian elite (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">Humphreys, 1974</xref>, p. 93-94).</p>
				<p>Finally, a third way in which the law of citizenship has been interpreted direct us toward the recent historiography on race relations in Antiquity. Certain scholars interpret the changes in the citizenship law as a practical manifestation of the autochthonous ideology promoted by the “state”. In this line of thought, the law would have put into action and materialised the desire to purify the “race” of the Athenian people by combating mixed marriages. Thus, allowing citizenship only to those born from an Athenian father and mother, Athenians would preserve their pure blood and would sustain, in practice, their pride in the exceptionality and superiority of their people and their exclusive relationship with the Attica land.</p>
				<p>One of the first authors to approach this topic in these terms was <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Hignett (1952</xref>), in a book written shortly after the Second World War, when the theme of racial purity was still very present in European culture due to the Nazi period. For Hignett, the main aspect of the law of 451/450 was “to preserve the racial purity of the citizen-body” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Hignett, 1952</xref>, p. 345).</p>
				<p>The interpretation of the 451/450 citizenship law as a manifestation of the Athenians’ desire to avoid any mixing of their “race” with foreigners had other supporters in the decades following Hignett’s book (for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Kagan, 1969</xref>, p. 104), but it has fallen into disuse since the 1980s.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn31"><sup>10</sup></xref> One of the reasons for this loss of credibility lies in the considerable criticism against this interpretation in the historiography of this period. Certain points of these criticisms will be embraced at the end of this article. However, now we shall see the contours of the revival of this racial purity thesis through the work of 21st-century historiography, especially <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>) states that sources from classical Greek period (5th-4th centuries BC) present the development of a “racial citizenship” promoted by Athens. For Lape, the ideological aspect of Athenian racism was the myth of autochthony, whereas the practical aspect was a set of legal measures taken by Athens to avoid mixing Athenian “race” with foreign blood. Moreover, the systemic character of Athenian racism, for Lape, was the very role of the Athenian polis in legalizing and promoting the strengthening of Athenian identity at the expense of foreign residents in Attica. We will see how this author builds her overall view of Athenian “racial citizenship” by articulating those elements that define racism.</p>
				<p>Lape’s work is part of a vast historiographical field that has been dedicated, at least since the 1970s, to analyse Athens’ civic ideology. This approach values how arts, theatre, discourses in honour of soldiers killed in battle (the ceremony of funeral oration) and speeches presented before the Assembly or the Courts of democratic Athens tended to present an idealised image of Athens, as a single civic entity, without diversity and conflicts. This research program was central, for instance, for the “School of Paris”, primarily with Jean-Pierre Vernant and Nicole Loraux.</p>
				<p>In effect, Loraux raised the myth of autochthony to the key piece of Athenian civic ideology. For Loraux: “The reminder of autochthony is, of course, a linchpin of Athenian external propaganda: according to the needs of the moment, the purity of an unalloyed birth provides the basis for hegemony or the city’s hatred of barbarians” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Loraux, [1981]2006a</xref>, p. 210-211).</p>
				<p>For this reason, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Loraux ([1981]2006a</xref>, p. 210) holds that autochthony is the “patriotic and civic myth embodying the unity of the Athenian community”. Lape follows the same line of valuing autochthony as a fundamental part of Athenian civic imagination. According to Lape, autochthony means the promotion of Athenian racial purity and the law of citizenship of 451/450 was the adaptation of this ideology to legal reality: “the law seems to translate the ethnic-national foundation of citizen identity encapsulated in the myth into a new legal and political reality” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 24). Therefore, it would be the practical realization of racial Athenian citizenship, that is, the articulation between ideology, action and structure.</p>
				<p>Analysing every Greek text discussed by Lape is beyond the scope of this article.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn32"><sup>11</sup></xref> Now, it is necessary to shed light on two weaknesses in Lape’s thesis: the chronological link she establishes between autochthony and citizenship law, and her interpretation of autochthony as a myth of racial purity. Regarding the first argument, Lape complicates the matter further when she writes, “the passage of the law undoubtedly expresses a pre-existing ideology” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 24). Nevertheless, as demonstrated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Rosivach (1987</xref>), there is no evidence that the full version of the myth of autochthony predates the reform of citizenship.</p>
				<p>As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Rosivach (1987</xref>) maintains, the first meaning of <italic>autochthon</italic> (“one always having the same land”) is probably chronologically older than the second meaning (“born from the earth”).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn33"><sup>12</sup></xref> However, Lape’s case depends on those two ­meanings already being operative in the first half of the 5th century. Note that the historical sources that Lape discusses, such as Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic>, Demosthenes’ speeches or Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>, are all chronologically subsequent to the law of citizenship. Although Lape is aware of Rosivach’s article, she does not engage with him to discuss the chronological challenge that weakens her thesis.</p>
				<p>Isaac also suggests a tight connection between the myth of autochthony and the law of citizenship. Based on his reading of Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic>, he affirms that, “the idea of being indigenous was used as justification for keeping immigrants in an inferior status. The notion that the foreigners are an alien threat recurs frequently in the play” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p. 118). For Isaac “the Athenian insistence on the purity of their lineage must be taken into account” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac, 2004</xref>, p.116, n. 226) in the interpretation of the citizenship law. Similar to Lape, Isaac mentions <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Rosivach (1987</xref>), but also fails to properly deal with the chronological issue related to the two meanings of the myth of autochthony.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn34"><sup>13</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Without the supposed Athenian racial pride as the underlying reason for the citizenship reform, it could be difficult for Lape to find the active participation of the city in creating laws specifically to promote the racialisation<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn35"><sup>14</sup></xref> of social groups. Racism without the vital role of the polis would lose its structural dimension, being just a set of ideas associated with how Athenians conceived their ancestry in a mythical way. This is an issue for Lape that, unlike Isaac, intends to emphasise not only the remote origins of modern racism in the ancient Greek political <italic>thought</italic>, but also aims to demonstrate that racial ideas acquired <italic>practical</italic> and <italic>legal</italic> expression in classical Athens.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn36"><sup>15</sup></xref>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>FROM PLATO’S <italic>MENEXENUS</italic> TO NON-HEREDITARY FORMS OF CULTURAL PREJUDICE</bold></title>
				<p>While it is true that Greek literature contains extracts presenting particular ideas of blood purity, this fact does not necessarily indicate that these passages are representative of the average Athenian citizen’s belief in an alleged racial superiority. However, these excerpts are precious to the proponents of the terminology of ancient racism. One of the most explicit passage is present in Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>.</p>
				<p>In this dialogue from the 4th century, Plato represents Socrates reciting, for the young Menexenus, a funeral oration (<italic>epitaphios logos</italic>) which Socrates had heard from Aspasia, companion of Pericles. This text is essentially a rhetorical exercise elaborated by Plato based on <italic>epitaphios logos</italic>, one of the most relevant civic ceremonies of the Athenians, in which a speaker was chosen regularly to deliver a public speech in honour of the soldiers who fought for Athens and were killed in battle. The Platonic dialogue contains basic topics of this kind of speech, such as a praise of Athens and its people; history of Athens’ military achievements from past to present; an exhortation to the contemporary Athenians. The interpretive problem of Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>, though, lies in the fact that the Platonic Socrates exposes this apparently serious civic argument by a framework that can be interpreted as ironic: “you’re always poking fun at the orators, Socrates” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">Plato, 1984</xref>, 235c), says Menexenus to Socrates. Thus, it is difficult to ascertain whether Socrates’ eulogies in the reported funeral speech are sincere or an ironic criticism of the rhetoric of the orators similar to what can be read in Plato’s <italic>Gorgias</italic>.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn37"><sup>16</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Thus, in Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>, Socrates says that the Athenians, unlike other Greeks, did not make shameful treaties with the Persians. The reason for this noble Athenian attitude is its intrinsic disdain for barbarians and the lack of miscegenation with them:</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>We alone did not dare to swear and betray them, so ﬁrm and healthy is the nobility and freedom of this city, hating Barbarians by nature because we are purely Greek and unmixed with Barbarian stock. There dwells among us no stock from Pelops, nor Cadmus, nor Egyptus, nor Danaus, nor the many others who are Greek by law but Barbarian by nature. Greeks ourselves, we live unmixed with Barbarians, whence arises the pure hatred in our city of alien natures. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">Plato, 1984</xref>, 245c6-d6)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>This passage from Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic> certainly displays a profound hatred of foreigners - barbarians and even non-Athenian Greeks - praising purity of the Athenian lineage. Thus, Athenians should be distinguished from other Greeks because they are untouched by the barbarians’ nature. The myth of autochthony is implied here, in which Athenians, as we have seen, are a people who have not been involved in miscegenation.</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 123) is right that the Athenians are presented in this text as the only pure Greeks. Nevertheless, I cannot entirely agree with Lape’s view that this type of excerpt allows us “to anticipate or prefigure the racial interpretation of history that developed in early modern Europe” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape, 2010</xref>, p. 143). Neither Isaac nor Lape adequately discusses the <italic>sui generis</italic> character of this Platonic passage, as we have seen, within Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic> that many scholars have interpreted as a critique of the type of rhetoric in funeral oration.</p>
				<p>It is possible that there is a rhetorical mechanism to exaggerate the patriotic character of the real Athenian funeral speeches and we cannot be as confident as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 123) that the content of this passage was shared by many Athenian citizens. Another element that points to the rhetorical exaggeration of this section of the <italic>Menexenus</italic> concerns the vocabulary. This text is, indeed, unparalleled in Greek literature by accumulating in a few lines an extraordinary number of words linked to the idea of purity, nature and contempt.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn38"><sup>17</sup></xref> There are four terms in the semantic field of pureness or mixture: the adverb <italic>eilikrinos</italic> and the adjective <italic>amigēs</italic>, which mean “unmixed”; <italic>katharos</italic> which means “clean”, “pure”; <italic>meixobarbaros</italic>, which means, in this context, “half barbarian, half Greek”. There are also three occurrences of the Greek word for “nature” (<italic>physis</italic>), in addition to two occurrences for “hatred” (<italic>misos</italic>), including the telling word <italic>misobarbaros</italic>, that is, “hatred of the barbarian.”</p>
				<p>It is important to keep in mind that, on the whole, the lexical use of terms related to purity in ancient Greek has nothing to do with the modern notion of racial purity. <italic>Eilikrinos</italic> and the corresponding noun <italic>eilikrinēs</italic> only denote that someone or something is genuine or not mixed. The association of ­<italic>eilikrinos</italic> with <italic>amigēs</italic> “unmixed” in <italic>Menexenus</italic> reinforcing the idea of Athenian purity is atypical in Greek literature. The adjective <italic>katharos</italic> could be used to describe the pure state of water, as in Herodotus 4.53, or it could refer to purification of a person after being religiously polluted. Athenians are called <italic>katharoi</italic> in Thucydides 5.8, but this merely suggests that Brasidas of Sparta will face an army composed only by Athenians. In Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic>, the polis (city) is called <italic>kathara</italic> in verse 673, however this is unrelated to racial purity. Finally, the <italic>meixobarbaros</italic> and <italic>misobarbaros</italic> compounds display hatred by the Greeks of non-Greek people considered barbarians, nevertheless this feeling can be classified within the terminology of ethnicity rather than race and racism.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn39"><sup>18</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The search for an operative notion of race from this text is methodologically risky for several reasons: 1) the seriousness of Plato’s statement is not guaranteed; 2) the patriotic exaggeration of this excerpt is uncommon even considering other funeral orations, which do not reveal, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Cohen (2000</xref>, p. 94-103) argues, anxiety regarding miscegenation or affirmation of racial purity; 3) The classification of human groups based on notions of blood and miscegenation is not typical of Plato, who emphasises typically that the differences between human beings must be understood by the mastery of virtue, for which there are educational and philosophical means of achieving it (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Kamtekar, 2002</xref>). Also, one must consider the absence of an equivalent in ancient Greek for our word “race”, let alone “racism”, as admitted by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">McCoskey (2006</xref>, p. 248) and demonstrated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">Tuplin (1999</xref>).</p>
				<p>Greeks (or Athenians, for Lape) who are deeply concerned with racial purity and ethnic cleansing could create a highly anachronistic image. Lape, for example, seems to believe that citizenship with the principle of <italic>ius sanguinis</italic> - civil rights being acquired by nationality (both parents in the case of Athens after 451) - would necessarily signify a racial structure promoted by the state to protect purity against blood degradation represented by the elements foreign to the national community defined by <italic>ius sanguinis</italic>. If this interpretation is correct, then, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Blok (2014</xref>, p. 870) argues, all societies, ancient and modern, that define citizenship by the notion of a community of descendants linked by blood ties would be racists. </p>
				<p>Indeed, one of the most widespread manners in which human groups constitute their identities is by the attribution of a foundational value to their territory and their ancestral bonds. This element has been fundamental in the definition of ethnic groups since Max Weber and it has been studied by several scholars of ancient Greece, such as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Hall (1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">2002</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Hall (2002</xref>, pp. 9-19) distinguishes three essential characteristics of ethnic groups: shared myth of descent; relationship with a specific territory; elaboration of a common History.</p>
				<p>In this sense, it is vital to differentiate racism from ethnicity and ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism and xenophobia are two aspects of the same phenomenon: the culture in question interprets its ethnic disparities with other societies as hierarchical relations of superiority and inferiority. The distinction lies, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">Taguieff (2001</xref>, p. 59) observes, in a matter of focus: the ethnocentric society conceives itself as the superior framework by which cultural differences must be evaluated, whereas the xenophobic culture tends to denigrate and to stereotype foreigners. </p>
				<p>Along those lines, racism, being a specific modality by which a society conceives and experiences its ethnic relations, carries hierarchical characteristics of ethnocentrism and xenophobia. However, racism is something more: it is a modality of thought and action closely linked to belonging to specific biological and/or geographical characteristics. Otherwise speaking, we can read Braude’s words on this topic:</p>
				<disp-quote>
					<p>Even more essential is the claim that <italic>all</italic> important characteristics of the members of that race are determined by that group’s physical heritage. In the racist worldview there is no human individuality. Each individual is merely an inevitable manifestation of the collective to which s/he belongs, with the nature of that collective determined by shared heredity. Racism may succinctly be defined as fixed collective hereditarian over-determinism. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Braude, 2011</xref>, p. 42)</p>
				</disp-quote>
				<p>By this comment, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Braude (2011</xref>) argues that one of the main differences between racism and xenophobia or ethnocentrism stems from the former’s hereditary character compared with “non-hereditarian forms of cultural prejudice” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Braude, 2011</xref>, p. 42), in which Braude includes xenophobia and ethnocentrism.</p>
				<p>Thus, the myth of autochthony can be understood as a narrative of ethnic identity that sets boundaries between who is included and who is not, by using common ancestry, territory and history as criteria. By interpreting autochthony as an ideology of human groups racialization, it would mean raising the logic of race, the heredity of collective traits, as the primary means by which Athenians would define those included and excluded from their ethnicity and citizenship.</p>
				<p>In my view, however, although we cannot completely rule out forms of hereditary determinism in Greek thought, the “non-hereditary forms of cultural prejudice” are much more widespread in Greek texts. Hence, Greek authors value learning and education (<italic>paideia</italic>) in the development of both individual and peoples, since there was no thought of an individual naturally immune to <italic>paideia</italic> and unable to learn. As a result, in ancient Greece race was not the main criterion of ethnic identity, since Athenians and other Greeks, as has been widely demonstrated (for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Ferreira, 1992</xref>), tended to conceive the group differences using cultural characteristics, unlike racist societies that use the phenotype (immutable; genetic) as the principal ethnic indicator (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">Den Berghe, 1981</xref>, p. 240-241).</p>
				<p>Before ending this article, I would like to indicate some limits of this study, as well as possible ways to increase our knowledge of racism in classical Antiquity. Due to the impossibility of discussing all aspects of the topic, this work focused on the relationship between autochthony and the Athenian citizenship law of 451/450. Thus, I deliberately omitted two issues that must be considered to decide whether it is legitimate to apply the lexicon of racism to ancient Greece. The first question is how the historian assesses the presence of biological and geographical determinism in the first medical and geographical treatises of Greeks and Romans, such as <italic>On Airs, Waters, and Places</italic> attributed to Hippocrates and probably written in the second half of the 5th century. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>) explores these sources because he estimates that these treaties provide a clear deterministic relation between the geography of a place, and moral and social characteristics of the individuals who live there. For him, this link is (proto) racist.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn40"><sup>19</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The actual status of foreign residents in Athens, the <italic>metics</italic>, was also not explored in this article. As we have seen, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010</xref>) argues that Athens promoted a racial citizenship at the expense of foreigners. In that case, it is worth reopening this debate to find out if the Athens’ <italic>metics</italic> were systematic victims of racism.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn41"><sup>20</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>Future investigations, accordingly, can reframe those themes discussing the innovative and provocative work of this recent historiographic perspective that aims to show the continuities between ancient and modern racism, changing our view of its origin, as well as how ancient societies conceived themselves as ethnic collectives.</p>
				<p>Since we write History (the historian’s text) using modern concepts - such as globalisation, gender, social class, political parties, and the idea of progress - it is always risky to use them. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Loraux ([1992]2006b)</xref> says, we need strategies to control anachronisms because a History made only from the perspective of the ancients is implausible. One of the ways to control anachronism concerning this topic, in my view, is to be very cautious with the use of the modern concept of racism to the ancient World. I am not convinced that “fear of diversity” of the ancient Greeks can be satisfactorily explained as racism and race.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn42"><sup>21</sup></xref> Nor do I think it is the best approach to broaden the definition of racism until it becomes synonymous with ethnicity.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ref-list>
				<title>REFERENCES</title>
				<ref id="B59">
					<mixed-citation>ALDROVANDI, Cibele E. V. <italic>Etnicidade, helenicidade e alteridade</italic>: apontamentos sobre a visão do outro e de si mesmo no mundo antigo. São Paulo: Labeca: MAE/USP, 2010.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ALDROVANDI</surname>
								<given-names>Cibele E. V.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Etnicidade, helenicidade e alteridade</italic>: apontamentos sobre a visão do outro e de si mesmo no mundo antigo</source>
						<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Labeca: MAE/USP</publisher-name>
						<year>2010</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B60">
					<mixed-citation>ARISTOTLE. The Athenian Constitution. Translated with introduction and notes by P.J. Rhodes. London: Penguin Books, 2002.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ARISTOTLE</surname>
								<given-names/>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Athenian Constitution</source>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Rhodes</surname>
								<given-names>P.J.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Penguin Books</publisher-name>
						<year>2002</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B61">
					<mixed-citation>ARISTOTLE. On Rhetoric. Translated with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by George A. Kennedy. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ARISTOTLE</surname>
								<given-names/>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>On Rhetoric</source>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Kennedy</surname>
								<given-names>George A.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<edition>2nd</edition>
						<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2007</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B62">
					<mixed-citation>BETHENCOURT, Francisco. <italic>Racisms</italic>: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>BETHENCOURT</surname>
								<given-names>Francisco</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Racisms</italic>: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2013</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B63">
					<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Book Review: <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>, by S. Lape. <italic>Mnemosyne</italic>, v. 67, p. 869-873, 2014.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>BLOK</surname>
								<given-names>Josine</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Book Review: Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy, by S. Lape</article-title>
						<source>Mnemosyne</source>
						<volume>67</volume>
						<fpage>869</fpage>
						<lpage>873</lpage>
						<year>2014</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B64">
					<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Gentrifying Genealogy: On the Genesis of the Athenian Autochthony Myth. In: DILL, Ueli; WALDE, Christine (ed.). <italic>Antike Mythen</italic>: Medien, Transformationen, und Konstruktionen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009a.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>BLOK</surname>
								<given-names>Josine</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Gentrifying Genealogy: On the Genesis of the Athenian Autochthony Myth</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>DILL</surname>
								<given-names>Ueli</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>WALDE</surname>
								<given-names>Christine</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Antike Mythen</italic>: Medien, Transformationen, und Konstruktionen</source>
						<publisher-loc>Berlin</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Walter de Gruyter</publisher-name>
						<year>2009</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B65">
					<mixed-citation>BLOK, Josine. Perikles’ Citizenship Law: A New Perspective. <italic>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</italic>, v. 58, n. 2, p. 141-170, 2009b.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>BLOK</surname>
								<given-names>Josine</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Perikles’ Citizenship Law: A New Perspective</article-title>
						<source>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</source>
						<volume>58</volume>
						<issue>2</issue>
						<fpage>141</fpage>
						<lpage>170</lpage>
						<year>2009</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B66">
					<mixed-citation>BRAUDE, Benjamin. Why Racism Arose in Europe and Why it Did Not in the Near East. In: BERG, Manfred; WENDT, Simon (ed.). <italic>Racism in the Modern World</italic>: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation. New York: Berghahn Books, 2011.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>BRAUDE</surname>
								<given-names>Benjamin</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Why Racism Arose in Europe and Why it Did Not in the Near East</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>BERG</surname>
								<given-names>Manfred</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>WENDT</surname>
								<given-names>Simon</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Racism in the Modern World</italic>: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation</source>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Berghahn Books</publisher-name>
						<year>2011</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B67">
					<mixed-citation>CAMPOS, Luiz Augusto. Racismo em três dimensões: uma abordagem realista-crítica. <italic>Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais</italic>, v. 32, n. 95, p. 1-19, 2017.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>CAMPOS</surname>
								<given-names>Luiz Augusto</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Racismo em três dimensões: uma abordagem realista-crítica</article-title>
						<source>Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais</source>
						<volume>32</volume>
						<issue>95</issue>
						<fpage>1</fpage>
						<lpage>19</lpage>
						<year>2017</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B68">
					<mixed-citation>CASEVITZ, Michel. Sur la notion de mélange en grec ancien (<italic>mixobarbare</italic> ou <italic>mixhellène</italic> ?). <italic>Mélanges Étienne Bernand</italic>, Besançon: Université de Franche-Comté, 1991.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>CASEVITZ</surname>
								<given-names>Michel</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Sur la notion de mélange en grec ancien (<italic>mixobarbare</italic> ou <italic>mixhellène</italic> ?). <italic>Mélanges Étienne Bernand</italic></source>
						<publisher-loc>Besançon</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Université de Franche-Comté</publisher-name>
						<year>1991</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B69">
					<mixed-citation>COHEN, Edward. <italic>The Athenian Nation</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>COHEN</surname>
								<given-names>Edward</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Athenian Nation</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2000</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B70">
					<mixed-citation>DAVIES, John K. Athenian Citizenship, the Descent Group and the Alternatives. <italic>The Classical Journal</italic>, v. 73, n. 2, p. 105-121, 1977-1978.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>DAVIES</surname>
								<given-names>John K.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Athenian Citizenship, the Descent Group and the Alternatives</article-title>
						<source>The Classical Journal</source>
						<volume>73</volume>
						<issue>2</issue>
						<fpage>105</fpage>
						<lpage>121</lpage>
						<season>197-</season>
						<year>1978</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B71">
					<mixed-citation>DE STE. CROIX, Geoffrey. <italic>Athenian Democratic Origins and Other Essays</italic>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>DE STE. CROIX</surname>
								<given-names>Geoffrey</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Athenian Democratic Origins and Other Essays</source>
						<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Oxford University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2004</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B72">
					<mixed-citation>ERICKSEN, Thomas H. <italic>Ethnicity and Nationalism</italic>: Anthropological Perspectives. [1994]. 3rd ed. New York: Pluto Press, 2010.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ERICKSEN</surname>
								<given-names>Thomas H.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Ethnicity and Nationalism</italic>: Anthropological Perspectives</source>
						<comment>[1994]</comment>
						<edition>3rd</edition>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Pluto Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2010</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B73">
					<mixed-citation>FENTON, Steve. <italic>Ethnicity</italic>: Racism, Class and Culture. London: Macmillan, 1999.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>FENTON</surname>
								<given-names>Steve</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Ethnicity</italic>: Racism, Class and Culture</source>
						<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Macmillan</publisher-name>
						<year>1999</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B74">
					<mixed-citation>FERREIRA, José Ribeiro. <italic>Hélade e Helenos</italic>: génese e evolução de um conceito. Coimbra: Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica, 1992.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>FERREIRA</surname>
								<given-names>José Ribeiro</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Hélade e Helenos</italic>: génese e evolução de um conceito</source>
						<publisher-loc>Coimbra</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica</publisher-name>
						<year>1992</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B75">
					<mixed-citation>FREDRICKSON, George M. <italic>Racism</italic>: a Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>FREDRICKSON</surname>
								<given-names>George M.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Racism</italic>: a Short History</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2002</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B76">
					<mixed-citation>GUIMARÃES, Antônio Sérgio A. Preconceito de cor e racismo no Brasil. <italic>Revista de Antropologia</italic>, São Paulo: USP, v. 47, n. 1, p. 9-43, 2004.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>GUIMARÃES</surname>
								<given-names>Antônio Sérgio A.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Preconceito de cor e racismo no Brasil</article-title>
						<source>Revista de Antropologia</source>
						<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>USP</publisher-name>
						<volume>47</volume>
						<issue>1</issue>
						<fpage>9</fpage>
						<lpage>43</lpage>
						<year>2004</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B77">
					<mixed-citation>GRUEN, Erich. S. <italic>Rethinking the Other in Antiquity</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>GRUEN</surname>
								<given-names>Erich. S.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Rethinking the Other in Antiquity</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2011</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B78">
					<mixed-citation>HALL, Edith. <italic>Inventing the Barbarian</italic>: Greek Self-Definition through Tragedy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HALL</surname>
								<given-names>Edith</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Inventing the Barbarian</italic>: Greek Self-Definition through Tragedy</source>
						<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1989</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B79">
					<mixed-citation>HALL, Jonathan. <italic>Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity</italic>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HALL</surname>
								<given-names>Jonathan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity</source>
						<publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1997</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B80">
					<mixed-citation>HALL, Jonathan. <italic>Hellenicity</italic>: Between Ethnicity and Culture. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HALL</surname>
								<given-names>Jonathan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Hellenicity</italic>: Between Ethnicity and Culture</source>
						<publisher-loc>Chicago</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Chicago University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2002</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B81">
					<mixed-citation>HANNAFORD, Ivan. <italic>Race</italic>: The History of an Idea in the West. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HANNAFORD</surname>
								<given-names>Ivan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Race</italic>: The History of an Idea in the West</source>
						<publisher-loc>Baltimore, MD</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Johns Hopkins University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1996</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B82">
					<mixed-citation>HIGNETT, Charles. <italic>A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C</italic>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HIGNETT</surname>
								<given-names>Charles</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C</italic>.</source>
						<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1952</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B83">
					<mixed-citation>HUMPHREYS, Sarah C. The <italic>nothoi</italic> of Kynosarges. <italic>Journal of Hellenic Studies</italic>, v. 94, p. 88-95, 1974.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>HUMPHREYS</surname>
								<given-names>Sarah C.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>The nothoi of Kynosarges</article-title>
						<source>Journal of Hellenic Studies</source>
						<volume>94</volume>
						<fpage>88</fpage>
						<lpage>95</lpage>
						<year>1974</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B84">
					<mixed-citation>ISAAC, Benjamin. <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ISAAC</surname>
								<given-names>Benjamin</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2004</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B85">
					<mixed-citation>KAGAN, Donald. <italic>The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</italic>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>KAGAN</surname>
								<given-names>Donald</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>T<bold>he Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</bold></source>
						<publisher-loc>Ithaca, NY</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Cornell University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1969</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B86">
					<mixed-citation>KAMTEKAR, Rachana. Distinction without a Difference? Race and Genos in Plato. In: WARD, Julie K.; LOTT, Tommy L. (ed.). <italic>Philosophers on Race</italic>: Critical Essays. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>KAMTEKAR</surname>
								<given-names>Rachana</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Distinction without a Difference? Race and Genos in Plato</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>WARD</surname>
								<given-names>Julie K.</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>LOTT</surname>
								<given-names>Tommy L.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Philosophers on Race</italic>: Critical Essays</source>
						<publisher-loc>Malden, MA</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Blackwell</publisher-name>
						<year>2002</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B87">
					<mixed-citation>KENNEDY, Rebecca F. Airs, Waters, Metals, Earth: People and environment in Archaic and classical Greek thought. In: KENNEDY, Rebecca F.; JONES-LEWIS, Molly (ed.). <italic>The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds</italic>. London: Routledge, 2016.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>KENNEDY</surname>
								<given-names>Rebecca F.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Airs, Waters, Metals, Earth: People and environment in Archaic and classical Greek thought</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>KENNEDY</surname>
								<given-names>Rebecca F.</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>JONES-LEWIS</surname>
								<given-names>Molly</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Routledge Handbook of Identity and the Environment in the Classical and Medieval Worlds</source>
						<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name>
						<year>2016</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B88">
					<mixed-citation>LAPE, Susan. <italic>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</italic>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LAPE</surname>
								<given-names>Susan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Race and Citizen Identity in the Classical Athenian Democracy</source>
						<publisher-loc>Cambridge</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2010</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B89">
					<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. Autoctonia, filiação legítima e cidadania no <italic>Íon</italic> de Eurípides. <italic>Humanitas</italic>, v. 63, p. 105-122, 2011.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LEÃO</surname>
								<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Autoctonia, filiação legítima e cidadania no Íon de Eurípides</article-title>
						<source>Humanitas</source>
						<volume>63</volume>
						<fpage>105</fpage>
						<lpage>122</lpage>
						<year>2011</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B90">
					<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. Cidadania, autoctonia e posse de terra na Atenas democrática. <italic>Cadmo</italic>, v. 20, p. 445-464, 2010.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LEÃO</surname>
								<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Cidadania, autoctonia e posse de terra na Atenas democrática</article-title>
						<source>Cadmo</source>
						<volume>20</volume>
						<fpage>445</fpage>
						<lpage>464</lpage>
						<year>2010</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B91">
					<mixed-citation>LEÃO, Delfim F. The Myth of Autochthony, Athenian Citizenship and the Right of Enktesis: A Legal Approach to Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic>. In: LEGRAS, Bernard; THÜR, Gerhard (hrsg.). <italic>Symposion 2011</italic>: Vorträge zur griechischen und hellenistischen Rechtsgeschichte. Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2012.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="confproc">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LEÃO</surname>
								<given-names>Delfim F.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Myth of Autochthony, Athenian Citizenship and the Right of Enktesis: A Legal Approach to Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic></source>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>LEGRAS</surname>
								<given-names>Bernard</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>THÜR</surname>
								<given-names>Gerhard</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<conf-name>Symposion 2011: Vorträge zur griechischen und hellenistischen Rechtsgeschichte</conf-name>
						<publisher-loc>Wien</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften</publisher-name>
						<year>2012</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B92">
					<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. <italic>Born of the Earth</italic>: Myth and Politics in Athens. Translated by Selina Stewart. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LORAUX</surname>
								<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Born of the Earth</italic>: Myth and Politics in Athens</source>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Stewart</surname>
								<given-names>Selina</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<publisher-loc>Ithaca, NY</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Cornell University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2000</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B93">
					<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. Elogio do anacronismo. [1992]. In: NOVAES, Adauto (org.). <italic>Tempo e História</italic>. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2006b.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LORAUX</surname>
								<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Elogio do anacronismo</chapter-title>
						<comment>[1992]</comment>
						<person-group person-group-type="compiler">
							<name>
								<surname>NOVAES</surname>
								<given-names>Adauto</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Tempo e História</source>
						<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Companhia das Letras</publisher-name>
						<year>2006</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B94">
					<mixed-citation>LORAUX, Nicole. The Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Classical City. [1981]. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Zone Books, 2006a.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>LORAUX</surname>
								<given-names>Nicole</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Invention of Athens: The Funeral Oration in the Classical City</source>
						<comment>[1981]</comment>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Sheridan</surname>
								<given-names>Alan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Zone Books</publisher-name>
						<year>2006</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B95">
					<mixed-citation>MANVILLE, Philip B. <italic>The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens</italic>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MANVILLE</surname>
								<given-names>Philip B.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Origins of Citizenship in Ancient Athens</source>
						<publisher-loc>Princeton, NJ</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1990</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B96">
					<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. Naming the Fault in Question: Theorizing Racism among the Greeks and Romans. <italic>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</italic>, v. 13, p. 243-267, 2006.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
								<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Naming the Fault in Question: Theorizing Racism among the Greeks and Romans</article-title>
						<source>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</source>
						<volume>13</volume>
						<fpage>243</fpage>
						<lpage>267</lpage>
						<year>2006</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B97">
					<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. <italic>Race</italic>: Antiquity and its Legacy. London: IB Tauris, 2012.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
								<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Race</italic>: Antiquity and its Legacy</source>
						<publisher-loc>London</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>IB Tauris</publisher-name>
						<year>2012</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B98">
					<mixed-citation>MCCOSKEY, Denise E. Race Before ‘Whiteness’: Studying Identity in Ptolemaic Egypt. <italic>Critical Sociology</italic>, v. 28, p. 13-39, 2002.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MCCOSKEY</surname>
								<given-names>Denise E.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Race Before ‘Whiteness’: Studying Identity in Ptolemaic Egypt</article-title>
						<source>Critical Sociology</source>
						<volume>28</volume>
						<fpage>13</fpage>
						<lpage>39</lpage>
						<year>2002</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B99">
					<mixed-citation>MICHEL, Aurélia. <italic>Un monde en nègre et blanc</italic>: enquête historique sur l’ordre racial. Paris: Points, 2020.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MICHEL</surname>
								<given-names>Aurélia</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Un monde en nègre et blanc</italic>: enquête historique sur l’ordre racial</source>
						<publisher-loc>Paris</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Points</publisher-name>
						<year>2020</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B100">
					<mixed-citation>MORALES, Fábio. <italic>A Democracia Ateniense pelo avesso</italic>: os metecos e a política nos discursos de Lísias. São Paulo: Edusp, 2014.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>MORALES</surname>
								<given-names>Fábio</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>A Democracia Ateniense pelo avesso</italic>: os metecos e a política nos discursos de Lísias</source>
						<publisher-loc>São Paulo</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Edusp</publisher-name>
						<year>2014</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B101">
					<mixed-citation>OGDEN, Daniel. <italic>Greek Bastardy in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods</italic>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>OGDEN</surname>
								<given-names>Daniel</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Greek Bastardy in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods</source>
						<publisher-loc>Oxford</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Clarendon Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1996</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B102">
					<mixed-citation>PATTERSON, Cynthia. <italic>Pericles’ Citizenship Law of 451-50 B.C</italic>. New York: Arno Classical Monographs, 1981.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>PATTERSON</surname>
								<given-names>Cynthia</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Pericles’ Citizenship Law of 451-50 B.C</italic>.</source>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Arno Classical Monographs</publisher-name>
						<year>1981</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B103">
					<mixed-citation>PELLING, Christopher. Bringing Autochthony Up-to-Date: Herodotus and Thucydides. <italic>The Classical World</italic>, v. 102, n. 4, p. 471-483, 2009.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>PELLING</surname>
								<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Bringing Autochthony Up-to-Date: Herodotus and Thucydides</article-title>
						<source>The Classical World</source>
						<volume>102</volume>
						<issue>4</issue>
						<fpage>471</fpage>
						<lpage>483</lpage>
						<year>2009</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B104">
					<mixed-citation>PLATO. The Dialogues of Plato, Volume 1. Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Gorgias, Menexenus. Translated with Comment by R. E. Allen. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="thesis">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>PLATO</surname>
								<given-names/>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Dialogues of Plato, Volume 1. Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Gorgias, Menexenus</source>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Allen</surname>
								<given-names>R. E.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<publisher-loc>New Haven, CT</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Yale University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1984</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B105">
					<mixed-citation>ROSIVACH, Vincent J. Autochthony and the Athenians. <italic>Classical Quarterly</italic>, v. 37, p. 234-305, 1987.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ROSIVACH</surname>
								<given-names>Vincent J.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>Autochthony and the Athenians</article-title>
						<source>Classical Quarterly</source>
						<volume>37</volume>
						<fpage>234</fpage>
						<lpage>305</lpage>
						<year>1987</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B106">
					<mixed-citation>SHAPIRO, Alan. Autochthony and the Visual Arts in Fifth-Century Athens. In: BOEDEKER, Deborah; RAAFLAUB, Kurt A. (ed.). <italic>Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</italic>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>SHAPIRO</surname>
								<given-names>Alan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Autochthony and the Visual Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>BOEDEKER</surname>
								<given-names>Deborah</given-names>
							</name>
							<name>
								<surname>RAAFLAUB</surname>
								<given-names>Kurt A.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Democracy, Empire, and the Arts in Fifth-Century Athens</source>
						<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1998</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B107">
					<mixed-citation>SIVANANDAN, Ambalavaner. <italic>Catching History on the Wing</italic>: Race, Culture and Globalisation. New York: Pluto Press, 2008.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>SIVANANDAN</surname>
								<given-names>Ambalavaner</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Catching History on the Wing</italic>: Race, Culture and Globalisation</source>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Pluto Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2008</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B108">
					<mixed-citation>SNOWDEN, Frank. <italic>Before Color Prejudice</italic>: The Ancient View of Blacks. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>SNOWDEN</surname>
								<given-names>Frank</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Before Color Prejudice</italic>: The Ancient View of Blacks</source>
						<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1983</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B109">
					<mixed-citation>SNOWDEN, Frank. <italic>Blacks in Antiquity</italic>: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>SNOWDEN</surname>
								<given-names>Frank</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Blacks in Antiquity</italic>: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience</source>
						<publisher-loc>Cambridge, MA</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1970</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B110">
					<mixed-citation>TAGUIEFF, Pierre-André. <italic>The Force of Prejudice</italic>: On Racism and its Doubles. Translated and Edited by Hassan Melehy. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2001.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>TAGUIEFF</surname>
								<given-names>Pierre-André</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>The Force of Prejudice</italic>: On Racism and its Doubles</source>
						<person-group person-group-type="translator">
							<name>
								<surname>Melehy</surname>
								<given-names>Hassan</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<publisher-loc>Minneapolis, MN</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>University of Minnesota Press</publisher-name>
						<year>2001</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B111">
					<mixed-citation>THOMPSON, Lloyd. <italic>Romans and Blacks</italic>. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>THOMPSON</surname>
								<given-names>Lloyd</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Romans and Blacks</source>
						<publisher-loc>Norman, OK</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>University of Oklahoma Press</publisher-name>
						<year>1989</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B112">
					<mixed-citation>TRIVIGNO, Franco V. The Rhetoric of Parody in Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>. <italic>Philosophy and Rhetoric</italic>, v. 42, n. 1, p. 29-58, 2009.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="journal">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>TRIVIGNO</surname>
								<given-names>Franco V.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<article-title>The Rhetoric of Parody in Plato’s Menexenus</article-title>
						<source>Philosophy and Rhetoric</source>
						<volume>42</volume>
						<issue>1</issue>
						<fpage>29</fpage>
						<lpage>58</lpage>
						<year>2009</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B113">
					<mixed-citation>TUPLIN, Christopher. Book Review: <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>, by Benjamin Isaac. <italic>Ancient West and East</italic>, p. 327-338, 2007.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>TUPLIN</surname>
								<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Book Review: <italic>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</italic>, by Benjamin Isaac. <italic>Ancient West and East</italic></source>
						<fpage>327</fpage>
						<lpage>338</lpage>
						<year>2007</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B114">
					<mixed-citation>TUPLIN, Christopher. Greek Racism? Observations on the Character and Limits of Greek Ethnic Prejudice. In: TSETSKHLADZE, Gocha R. (ed.). <italic>Ancient Greeks East and West</italic>. Leiden: Brill, 1999.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>TUPLIN</surname>
								<given-names>Christopher</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<chapter-title>Greek Racism? Observations on the Character and Limits of Greek Ethnic Prejudice</chapter-title>
						<person-group person-group-type="editor">
							<name>
								<surname>TSETSKHLADZE</surname>
								<given-names>Gocha R.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>Ancient Greeks East and West</source>
						<publisher-loc>Leiden</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Brill</publisher-name>
						<year>1999</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B115">
					<mixed-citation>VAN DEN BERGHE, Pierre L. <italic>The Ethnic Phenomenon</italic>. New York: Elsevier, 1981.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>VAN DEN BERGHE</surname>
								<given-names>Pierre L.</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source>The Ethnic Phenomenon</source>
						<publisher-loc>New York</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
						<year>1981</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B116">
					<mixed-citation>ZACHARIA, Katerina. <italic>Converging Truths</italic>: Euripides’ Ion and the Athenian Quest for Self-Definition. Leiden: Brill, 2003.</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<name>
								<surname>ZACHARIA</surname>
								<given-names>Katerina</given-names>
							</name>
						</person-group>
						<source><italic>Converging Truths</italic>: Euripides’ Ion and the Athenian Quest for Self-Definition</source>
						<publisher-loc>Leiden</publisher-loc>
						<publisher-name>Brill</publisher-name>
						<year>2003</year>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
			</ref-list>
			<fn-group>
				<title>NOTES</title>
				<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn22">
					<label>1</label>
					<p>Research funded by São Paulo Research Foundation (Fapesp), process numbers 2018/17414-6; 2019/07542-0. I would like to thank Xavier Riu and Jaume Pòrtulas (Universitat de Barcelona), and Richard Seaford (University of Exeter), for having discussed with me the ideas of this paper.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn23">
					<label>2</label>
					<p>The concept of race has sociological relevance in explaining the action of people who, consciously or not, use this idea to discriminate against people, although this notion does not have credibility from a genetic and biological point of view. Race is a cultural construct, although its definition usually has an imagined relationship with biological aspects of human groups. On this topic, see, for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Ericksen ([1994]2010</xref>, p. 6).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn24">
					<label>3</label>
					<p>See <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Fredrickson (2002</xref>, p. 17-47).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn25">
					<label>4</label>
					<p>In this article, I limit the term Antiquity or Classical Antiquity to refer to ancient Greece and Rome.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn26">
					<label>5</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Aldrovandi (2010)</xref> reviews significant studies on ethnicity in ancient Greece. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">Gruen (2011)</xref> highlights examples of contact with, and even admiration of, foreigners by Greeks.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn27">
					<label>6</label>
					<p>The dates relating to Antiquity in this article are always before Christ.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn28">
					<label>7</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Guimarães (2004)</xref> assesses that “the expanded reproduction of racial inequalities in Brazil coexists with the growing softening of racist attitudes and behaviours” (p. 33). It is worth investigating, however, whether the recent emergence of the Jair Bolsonaro’s government is contributing to the increase in explicitly racist speeches and attitudes in Brazil.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn29">
					<label>8</label>
					<p>The myth of autochthony appears in several classes of sources during the 5th and 4th centuries: ceramic vases; Herodotus and Thucydides (although these authors do not qualify the Athenians as autochthonous); Isocrates, Lysias and Demosthenes; Plato’s Menexenus; speeches in honour of the Athenian soldiers killed in battle (funeral oration); dramatic poetry, especially, Euripides’s Ion and Erechtheus. For an overview of the myth of autochthony, in addition to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Loraux ([1981]2006a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">2000</xref>), see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">Leão (2010)</xref>. Similar to Lape, he develops a narrative relating autochthony and citizenship, but, unlike her, he does not think that the purpose of the citizenship law of 451-450 was protection of Athenians’ racial purity.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn30">
					<label>9</label>
					<p>It is impossible to discuss, in this article, the many interpretations of the citizenship law. The reader who wants to broaden the knowledge on this controversy can read the comments by Peter Rhodes in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">De Ste. Croix (2004</xref>, p. 251-253), as well as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Blok (2009b)</xref>, which served as the basis for the classifications of the interpretations proposed in my paper.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn31">
					<label>10</label>
					<p>It is emblematic that substantial volumes on Greek citizenship between 1980 and 2000, like <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Manville (1990)</xref>, do not even mention the word “racism”. However, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">Ogden (1994)</xref> is an exception, who reads autochthony as an ideology of racial purity and the citizenship law of 451/450 as the concrete manifestation of this ideology, in a similar way to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Lape (2010)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn32">
					<label>11</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Blok (2009a)</xref> discusses part of the same sources as Lape on autochthony, but comes to different conclusions, denying that this myth stresses racial pureness. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">Pelling (2009)</xref> analyses this topic in Herodotus and Thucydides, highlighting how the myth was ambiguous and elastic, being used with different meanings depending on the discursive genre. Autochthony in the Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic> has a lengthy bibliography. Particularly useful are <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">Zacharia (2003)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Leão (2012)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn33">
					<label>12</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">Shapiro (1998)</xref> explores autochthony in visual arts and assesses that the full version of the myth of autochthony should be dated in the second half of the 5th century, as an ideological response from Athenians to the needs of their democracy and their hegemonic role in the Delian League. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Blok (2009a</xref>, p. 261) argues that the first signs of the two meanings of the word “<italic>autochthon</italic>” occurred in the last two decades of the 5th century, namely with two Euripidean plays, <italic>Ion</italic> and <italic>Erechtheus</italic>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn34">
					<label>13</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004</xref>, p. 114-115, n. 220) reports <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">Rosivach’s (1987)</xref> arguments but does not consider them in his interpretation of the relationship between autochthony and the law of citizenship. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">Patterson (1981)</xref> devotes much of the fourth chapter of her book opposing the “racial” reading of the law proposed by Pericles.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn35">
					<label>14</label>
					<p>By racialization, I mean the activity of specific social agents in transforming a group of individuals into a race. In other words, racialization can be seen as the “[social] process of facing physical differences as social markers and, typically, reinforcing them through a regime of oppression” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">FENTON, 1999</xref>, p. 66).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn36">
					<label>15</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">Isaac (2004)</xref> overemphasises the ideological dimension of what he describes as proto-racism: “This work is not concerned with the actual treatment of foreigners in Greece and Rome, but with opinions and concepts encountred in the literature” (p. 2). On these three aspects of racism (ideological, practical and structural), see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Campos (2017)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn37">
					<label>16</label>
					<p>About the divergence between serious and ironic readings of Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic>, see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">Trivigno (2009)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn38">
					<label>17</label>
					<p>Unlike <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Kamtekar (2002</xref>, p. 3), I do not think that Plato’s <italic>Laws</italic> 692e-693a is comparable to <italic>Menexenus</italic> 245c-d in terms of emphasis on racial purity and anxiety regarding miscegenation. In Euripides’ <italic>Erectheus</italic>, we read that Athenians are autochthonous in contrast to other migrant peoples (fragment 360, verses 1-13). Euripides’ <italic>Ion</italic> contains a similar statement: Athenians were autochthonous and therefore they did not originate from outside Attica (verses 585-594). These Euripidean excerpts do not contain, however, the collection of terms for lineage and hatred for the barbarians that exists in Plato’s <italic>Menexenus</italic> 245 c-d. Moreover, it is worth noting that there is no such articulation between autochthony, blood and purity in the famous funeral oration attributed to Pericles by Thucydides (2.36-41).</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn39">
					<label>18</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Casevitz (1991)</xref> discusses words in ancient Greek that denote an intermediate stage between Greeks and barbarians, such as <italic>meixobarbaros</italic> or <italic>mixellēnes</italic> (“half Hellenic”). For the opposition between Greeks and Barbarians in ancient Greek culture, see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Hall (1989)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn40">
					<label>19</label>
					<p>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Kennedy (2016)</xref> debates how Greek medical and ethnographical works intended to extract cultural traits from human groups based on climatic and geographical characteristics of a particular environment.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn41">
					<label>20</label>
					<p>On the dialectic between reality and representation around <italic>metics</italic> in Athenian democracy, see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Morales (2014)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn42">
					<label>21</label>
					<p>In making that point, I agree with scholars who are also not persuaded by this defence of the use of (proto) racism in Antiquity: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">Tuplin (2007)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Blok (2014)</xref>.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
		</back>
	</sub-article>-->
</article>