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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rac</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista argentina de cardiología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev Argent Cardiol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1850-3748</issn>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0034-7000</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00008</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7775/rac.es.v92.i6.20837</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>ARTÍCULO DE REVISIÓN</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Impacto de la terapia hormonal de reafirmación de género en la salud cardiovascular</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>Impact of Gender-Affirming Hormone Therapy on Cardiovascular Health</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-4917-668X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bartolomé Roca</surname>
						<given-names>M. Camila</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1b"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5620-6468</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Masson</surname>
						<given-names>Walter</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9624-6424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Falconi</surname>
						<given-names>Mariano</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-7264-6874</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Iroulart</surname>
						<given-names>Juan M.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5806-2755</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Blanco</surname>
						<given-names>Rocío</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-8063-8820</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pizarro</surname>
						<given-names>Rodolfo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1 </label>
					<institution content-type="original">Servicio de Cardiología, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servicio de Cardiología</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff1b">
					<label>1 </label>
					<institution content-type="original">Servicio de Cardiología, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servicio de Cardiología</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
					<email>camila.bartolome@hospitalitaliano.org.ar</email>
				</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Dirección para correspondencia:</label> Camila Bartolomé. E-mail: <email>camila.bartolome@hospitalitaliano.org.ar</email>. Dirección postal: Tte. Gral. Juan Domingo Perón 4190. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Argentina </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
					<p>Miembro Titular de la Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn2">
					<label>Declaración de conflicto de intereses </label>
					<p> Los autores declaran que no tienen conflicto de intereses (Ver formularios de conflicto de intereses de los autores en la web)</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<!--<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>20</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Nov-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>-->
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>Nov-Dec</season>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>92</volume>
			<issue>6</issue>
			<fpage>448</fpage>
			<lpage>455</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2024</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN</title>
				<p>A pesar de los avances en el manejo de factores de riesgo cardiovascular, el abordaje de la población transgénero que recibe terapia hormonal no está completamente definido. Los pacientes transgénero son aquellos que presentan &quot;incongruencia de género&quot;, es decir, una discrepancia entre el género expresado por el individuo y el género designado, el cual generalmente se corresponde con el sexo biológico. En estos casos el tratamiento hormonal difiere del enfoque &quot;tradicional&quot; al tratarse de una hormonización &quot;cruzada&quot;. Múltiples estudios han evaluado la relación entre la terapia hormonal para la reafirmación de género (THRG), el desarrollo de factores de riesgo cardiovascular y la ocurrencia de eventos cardiovasculares, tanto para la población transfemenina como transmasculina. Estos hallazgos son particularmente relevantes, ya que la enfermedad cardiovascular es la segunda causa de mortalidad en la población transgénero. Sin embargo, los estudios que han intentado estratificar a este grupo según su riesgo cardiovascular han enfrentado notables dificultades y limitaciones. El objetivo de esta revisión es investigar el impacto de la THRG en la salud cardiovascular, evaluar la necesidad de reconsiderar la estratificación del riesgo y las metas terapéuticas para estos pacientes, y discutir la aplicabilidad de las recomendaciones generales a esta población específica.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>ABSTRACT </title>
				<p>Despite advances in the management of cardiovascular risk factors, the approach to the transgender population receiving hormone therapy is not completely defined. Transgender patients are those who present with &quot;gender incongruence,&quot; that is, a discrepancy between the individual's expressed gender and the designated gender, which generally corresponds to the biological sex. In these cases, hormonal treatment differs from the &quot;traditional&quot; approach in that it is a &quot;crossover&quot; hormonal treatment. Multiple studies have evaluated the relationship between gender affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), the development of cardiovascular risk factors and the occurrence of cardiovascular events, both for the transfeminine and transmasculine population. These findings are particularly relevant, as cardiovascular disease is the second leading cause of mortality in the transgender population. However, studies that have attempted to stratify this group according to their cardiovascular risk have faced notable difficulties and limitations. The aim of this review is to investigate the impact of GATH on cardiovascular health, to assess the need to reconsider risk stratification and therapeutic targets for these patients, and to discuss the applicability of general recommendations to this specific population.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras claves:</title>
				<kwd>Personas transgénero</kwd>
				<kwd>Terapia de reemplazo hormonal</kwd>
				<kwd>Enfermedad cardiovascular</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Transgender people</kwd>
				<kwd>hormone replacement therapy</kwd>
				<kwd>cardiovascular disease</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="1"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="45"/>
				<page-count count="8"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>La enfermedad cardiovascular es la principal causa de muerte en todo el mundo.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>) A pesar de los importantes avances en el manejo de los factores de riesgo cardiovascular (FRCV) y de la publicación de numerosas guías de práctica clínica, el abordaje de ciertas subpoblaciones en relación con la prevención cardiovascular no está completamente clarificado.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>) Dentro de este grupo se encuentran los pacientes que reciben tratamientos hormonales, incluyendo a los que reciben terapia hormonal para la reafirmación de género (THRG), para quienes las recomendaciones específicas en prevención cardiovascular, muy claras para la población general, no están adecuadamente definidas. Dado que numerosos estudios han reportado el impacto de estas terapias en los FRCV y una asociación entre los tratamientos hormonales y la ocurrencia de eventos cardiovasculares, el objetivo de esta revisión es investigar el impacto de la THRG en la salud cardiovascular, analizar si es necesario reconsiderar la estratificación del riesgo y las metas terapéuticas para estos pacientes, y discutir si las recomendaciones para la población general son aplicables a esta población específica.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Incongruencia de género y “hormonización cruzada”</title>
			<p>Los pacientes transgénero son aquellos que presentan &quot;incongruencia de género&quot;, es decir, una discrepancia entre el género expresado por el individuo y el sexo biológico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>) La incorporación de este término por parte de la Organización Mundial de la Salud tiene como fin facilitar el abordaje diagnóstico de las cuestiones relacionadas con la identidad de género, entendida como la percepción individual del mismo, y garantizar el acceso a los servicios de salud en esta población. Asimismo, el término &quot;disforia de género&quot; hace referencia al <italic>distress</italic> experimentado, producto de la mencionada incongruencia. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>) Se llama hombre transgénero a un individuo de sexo biológico femenino, pero con una identidad de género masculina, en que se plantea la transición de género de mujer a hombre. Una mujer transgénero tiene un sexo biológico masculino, pero con una identidad de género femenina, siendo la transición de hombre a mujer.</p>
			<p>Como parte de la despatologización de las identidades de género, la Ley de Identidad de Género (Ley n° 26.743) estipula que todas las personas tienen derecho al libre desarrollo de su persona conforme a su identidad de género, y en este contexto, la THRG se presenta como una estrategia terapéutica cuyo objetivo es eliminar los caracteres físicos asociados con el sexo biológico y desarrollar los del género percibido. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>) Los protocolos de hormonización para estos pacientes se basan en la administración de estrógenos y testosterona, y se detallan en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabla 1</xref>. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>)</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Tabla 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Esquemas de hormonización para la terapia de reafirmación de género. Adaptado del Ministerio de Salud de la Nación.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>)</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup>
							<col span="4"/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr style="border: 0; background-color:white;">
								<th align="justify" colspan="4">Estradiol: vías de administración y dosificación </th>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
								<th align="justify">Vía de administración</th>
								<th align="center">Presentación</th>
								<th align="center">Esquema</th>
								<th align="center">Dosis</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="justify">Oral</td>
								<td align="center">Valerato de 17β-estradiol </td>
								<td align="center">1 o 2 tomas diarias</td>
								<td align="center">2 a 6 mg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border: 0; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="justify" rowspan="2">Transdérmica</td>
								<td align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">Gel de 17β-estradiol al 0,06%</td>
								<td align="center">1 o 2 aplicaciones diarias</td>
								<td align="center">0,75 a 3 mg (1,25 a 5 mg de gel)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="center">Parche de estradiol</td>
								<td align="center">Recambio cada 3 o 4 días</td>
								<td align="center">50 a 100 mg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border: 0; background-color:white;">
								<td align="justify" colspan="4"><bold>Testosterona: vías de administración y dosificación</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
								<td align="justify">Vía de administración</td>
								<td align="center">Presentación</td>
								<td align="center">Esquema</td>
								<td align="center">Dosis</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="justify" rowspan="3">Intramuscular</td>
								<td align="center">Enantato inyectable</td>
								<td align="center">Aplicación cada 15 a 21 días</td>
								<td align="center">250 mg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="center">Cipionato inyectable</td>
								<td align="center">Aplicación cada 15 a 21 días</td>
								<td align="center">250 mg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="center">Undecanoato inyectable</td>
								<td align="center">Aplicación trimestral (cada 10 a 12 semanas)</td>
								<td align="center">1000 mg</td>
							</tr>
							<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
								<td align="justify">Transdérmica</td>
								<td align="center">Gel de testosterona al 1%</td>
								<td align="center">Aplicación diaria</td>
								<td align="center">25 a 100 mg (2,5 a 10 gr de gel)</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Hormonización, factores de riesgo y salud cardiovascular: ¿de qué evidencia partimos?</title>
			<p>Se han establecido múltiples asociaciones entre las terapias de reemplazo hormonal, el desarrollo de FRCV y la ocurrencia de eventos cardiovasculares. Los efectos de la hormonización se han documentado principalmente en hombres con hipogonadismo y en mujeres posmenopáusicas.</p>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Estrógenos, metabolismo y eventos cardiovasculares.</italic></title>
				<p>Numerosos estudios han demostrado una asociación clara entre el tratamiento estrogénico y una mejora en el perfil lipídico. Este tratamiento se asocia con una disminución en los niveles de colesterol ligado a la lipoproteína de baja densidad (C-LDL) y un aumento en las concentraciones de colesterol ligado a la lipoproteína de alta densidad (C-HDL), aunque también se observa un incremento en los niveles de triglicéridos. A su vez, se ha encontrado que las formulaciones orales provocan cambios más significativos en estas concentraciones en comparación con las formulaciones transdérmicas, y que estos efectos están influenciados por la dosis administrada. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>) Además, se informó una reducción del 25% en los niveles de lipoproteína(a) [(Lp(a)] en las mujeres tratadas con estrógenos orales, y que la asociación entre los niveles de esta lipoproteína y el desarrollo de enfermedad coronaria se vería modificada por el tratamiento hormonal.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>) Sumado a lo anterior, los estrógenos se asocian a una reducción de la insulinorresistencia, y un aumento en los niveles de proteína C reactiva secundario al uso de las formulaciones orales (no así con las transdérmicas).(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>) </p>
				<p>Sin embargo, a pesar de su impacto beneficioso en múltiples componentes del perfil metabólico, los grandes ensayos clínicos aleatorizados <italic>HERS</italic> y <italic>WHI,</italic> desarrollados en mujeres posmenopáusicas, demostraron que el tratamiento estrogénico conlleva un riesgo aumentado de eventos cardiovasculares mayores, tales como infarto de miocardio, accidente cerebrovascular (ACV) y tromboembolismo venoso o pulmonar, a tal punto que el estudio <italic>WHI</italic> debió ser suspendido prematuramente. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>) Esto podría explicarse, en parte, por un efecto reductor sobre la actividad de la proteína S, implicada en la degradación de los factores de coagulación, así como por el papel potencialmente dual de los estrógenos en el proceso aterogénico. Los estrógenos pueden tener un efecto beneficioso sobre el endotelio sano, pero un impacto negativo en la enfermedad aterosclerótica con placas ya establecidas. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>) </p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Testosterona, metabolismo y eventos cardiovasculares.</italic></title>
				<p>Los estudios en hombres con hipogonadismo han mostrado resultados contradictorios respecto al impacto de la testosterona en el perfil metabólico. Se ha observado que la testosterona inhibe la lipogénesis y favorece la lipólisis, lo que podría tener un efecto beneficioso en la obesidad y la resistencia a la insulina asociadas a esta condición. No obstante, en hombres con hipogonadismo tratados con testosterona exógena, la suspensión brusca del tratamiento puede provocar aumentos en los niveles de glucosa en ayunas. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>) Por otro lado, aunque el uso de andrógenos anabólicos se ha asociado con un riesgo incrementado de hipertensión arterial, el tratamiento con dosis que igualen las concentraciones fisiológicas de testosterona podría tener un efecto beneficioso en la presión arterial. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>) A pesar de esto, los efectos de la testosterona en la enfermedad aterosclerótica aún no están claros. Mientras que algunos estudios han encontrado que el tratamiento con dosis fisiológicas de testosterona se asocia con una reducción del espesor de la íntima-media carotídea, otros estudios sugieren resultados opuestos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>) </p>
				<p>Es importante destacar que los efectos de los andrógenos pueden diferir significativamente entre el sistema cardiovascular masculino y el femenino. En mujeres con síndrome de ovario poliquístico (SOP) hiperandrogénico, se ha reportado una asociación entre este trastorno y el desarrollo de hipertrofia ventricular izquierda, un deterioro de la fracción de eyección ventricular izquierda y alteraciones en el llenado mitral. También se ha observado una tendencia hacia la hipertensión arterial, que podría estar relacionada con un deterioro en la liberación de óxido nítrico debido al estrés oxidativo y la activación de vías que conducen a la disfunción endotelial. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>) </p>
				<p>En cuanto a la asociación con eventos cardiovasculares, el ensayo clínico <italic>TOM</italic> observó que en un grupo de hombres de aproximadamente 75 años con niveles de testosterona en el rango de hipogonadismo y una alta prevalencia de comorbilidades cardiovasculares, el uso de testosterona exógena se asoció con una mayor incidencia de eventos adversos cardiovasculares.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>) Otros estudios de carácter observacional obtuvieron resultados similares, con una incidencia acumulativa de muerte por cualquier causa, hospitalización por infarto de miocardio o ACV isquémico mayor en los pacientes hormonizados. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>) Sin embargo, el reciente ensayo clínico aleatorizado <italic>TRAVERSE</italic> demostró, en un análisis de no inferioridad, que el reemplazo hormonal con testosterona en hombres con enfermedad cardiovascular preexistente o alto riesgo no presenta diferencias significativas en comparación con el placebo en cuanto a la ocurrencia de eventos cardiovasculares mayores. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>) </p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title><bold>Asociación de la hormonización “<italic>cruzada</italic>” con los factores de riesgo y los eventos cardiovasculares en los pacientes transgénero</bold></title>
			<p>En los pacientes transgénero que reciben THRG, se han observado cambios en los FRCV así como en la tasa de eventos cardiovasculares. Este aspecto es de especial interés, ya que en estos casos el tratamiento hormonal difiere del enfoque &quot;tradicional&quot; al tratarse de una hormonización &quot;<italic>cruzada</italic>&quot;.</p>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Tratamiento estrogénico cruzado y salud cardiovascular en la población transfemenina.</italic></title>
				<p>Diversos estudios han valorado el impacto de la hormonización cruzada en los FRCV en mujeres transgénero. En cuanto a su influencia en la presión arterial, los resultados han sido contradictorios. En general, la mayoría de estos estudios sugiere que la hormonización cruzada con estrógenos se asocia con un incremento en los valores de presión arterial, con aumentos documentados de hasta 4 mmHg en la presión arterial sistólica y 6,5 mmHg en la presión arterial diastólica después de solo un año de tratamiento. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) Sin embargo, los múltiples estudios que valoraron los cambios en la presión arterial no observaron diferencias significativas al comparar estos resultados con los de hombres en la población general. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>) La testosterona endógena en estas pacientes induciría una respuesta vasopresora mediada por el sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>) Además, las diferencias en la distribución de los receptores estrogénicos en el sistema cardiovascular femenino en comparación con el masculino contribuirían al estrés oxidativo y la disfunción endotelial, mecanismos subyacentes al desarrollo de hipertensión arterial. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>) </p>
				<p>En relación con el perfil lipídico, aunque algunos estudios no han mostrado variaciones tras el inicio del tratamiento, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) la mayoría ha demostrado que la terapia estrogénica en mujeres transgénero se asocia con cambios favorables en los parámetros lipídicos, de manera similar a lo observado en mujeres posmenopáusicas que usan estrógenos orales. Entre los estudios más representativos en este aspecto se encuentra el estudio <italic>ENIGI</italic>, realizado en cuatro clínicas de género europeas con un total de 144 mujeres transgénero. En este estudio, se observó que la población transfemenina experimentó una reducción del colesterol total de 7,66 mg/dL (IC 95%: 2,94-12,39) y una reducción de 4,65 mg/dl en los niveles de C-LDL (IC 95% 0,74-8,56) en comparación con los valores basales tras el inicio del tratamiento. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
				<p>En cuanto al metabolismo de la glucosa, se han observado parámetros de resistencia a la insulina y una reducción en la respuesta a las incretinas en mujeres transgénero bajo tratamiento hormonal. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>) Según la Asociación Americana del Corazón (AHA), las mujeres transgénero presentan una mayor prevalencia de diabetes en comparación con los grupos cisgénero. La probabilidad de desarrollar diabetes en este grupo es dos veces mayor que en las mujeres de la población general y seis veces mayor que en los hombres. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>) Los cambios en el peso y el índice de masa corporal (IMC) tras el inicio del tratamiento hormonal podrían justificar los cambios en el perfil glucídico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) </p>
				<p>En relación con los eventos cardiovasculares documentados en la población de mujeres transgénero, se ha observado, al igual que en las mujeres posmenopáusicas, una mayor incidencia de infarto de miocardio, eventos tromboembólicos venosos y ACV isquémico en comparación con la población general. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>) Uno de los estudios más extensos, que evaluó la incidencia de eventos en 2842 mujeres transgénero, encontró una mayor incidencia de eventos tromboembólicos y ACV en las mujeres transgénero en comparación con hombres y mujeres de la población general. Además, se observó una mayor incidencia de infarto de miocardio en la población transfemenina en comparación con la cohorte de mujeres de referencia, aunque no fue mayor que la incidencia observada en la cohorte masculina de referencia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabla 2</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>) Otros estudios han obtenido resultados similares, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>) y uno de ellos reveló que las mujeres transgénero presentaban una tasa de infarto del 7,8%, significativamente superior a la de las mujeres en la población general. Sin embargo, este estudio no especificó si las pacientes incluidas recibían tratamiento hormonal. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>) </p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Tabla 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Incidencia de eventos cardiovasculares en la población transfemenina</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col span="2"/>
								<col span="2"/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
									<th align="center" rowspan="2"><bold>Cohorte y evento de interés</bold></th>
									<th align="center" colspan="2">Cohorte transfemenina </th>
									<th align="center" colspan="2">HR ajustado (IC 95%)* </th>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
									<th align="center">Eventos cardiovasculares (n)</th>
									<th align="center">Incidencia<sup>†</sup> (IC 95%)</th>
									<th align="center">Vs. hombres de la población general</th>
									<th align="center">Vs. mujeres de la población general</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left" colspan="5">Cohorte transfemenina global (n=2842) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Tromboembolismo venoso</td>
									<td align="center">61</td>
									<td align="center">5,5 (4,3-7,0)</td>
									<td align="center">1,9 (1,4-2,7)</td>
									<td align="center">2,0 (1,4-2,8)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">ACV isquémico</td>
									<td align="center">54</td>
									<td align="center">4,8 (3,7-6,3)</td>
									<td align="center">1,2 (0,9-1,7)</td>
									<td align="center">1,9 (1,3-2,6)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Infarto de miocardio</td>
									<td align="center">33</td>
									<td align="center">2,9 (2,1-4,1)</td>
									<td align="center">0,9 (0,6-1,5)</td>
									<td align="center">1,8 (1,1-2,9)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left" colspan="5">Cohorte transfemenina de inicio de estrógenos (n=853) </td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Tromboembolismo venoso </td>
									<td align="center">17</td>
									<td align="center">6,6 (4,1-10,6)</td>
									<td align="center">3,2 (1,5-6,5)</td>
									<td align="center">2,5 (1,2-5,0)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left"> • A los 0-2 años de seguimiento</td>
									<td align="center">6</td>
									<td align="center">4,3 (1,9-9,6)</td>
									<td align="center">1,5 (0,5-5,1)</td>
									<td align="center">1,7 (0,5-5,5)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left"> • A &gt;2 años de seguimiento</td>
									<td align="center">11</td>
									<td align="center">9,3 (5,2-16,8)</td>
									<td align="center">5,1 (2,1-12,6)</td>
									<td align="center">3,2 (1,3-7,6)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">ACV isquémico </td>
									<td align="center">17</td>
									<td align="center">6,6 (4,1-10,6)</td>
									<td align="center">2,3 (1,2-4,3)</td>
									<td align="center">2,9 (1,5-5,5)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left"> • A los 0-6 años de seguimiento</td>
									<td align="center">9</td>
									<td align="center">3,8 (2,0-7,3)</td>
									<td align="center">1,3 (0,6-2,9)</td>
									<td align="center">2,3 (1,0-5,4)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left"> • A &gt;6 años de seguimiento</td>
									<td align="center">8</td>
									<td align="center">36,2 (18,1-72,4)</td>
									<td align="center">9,9 (3,0-33,1)</td>
									<td align="center">4,1 (1,5-11,4)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Infarto de miocardio</td>
									<td align="center">4</td>
									<td align="center">1,5 (0,6-4,1)</td>
									<td align="center">1,0 (0,3-3,2)</td>
									<td align="center">2,4 (0,6-9,4)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p>ACV: accidente cerebrovascular; HR: hazard ratio; IC: intervalo de confianza; Vs.: versus.</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN2">
								<p>*Comparación con las cohortes de referencia. Adaptado de Getahun y cols. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>)</p>
							</fn>
							<fn id="TFN3">
								<p>†Calculado como número de casos por 1000 pacientes/año.</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><italic>Tratamiento cruzado con testosterona y salud cardiovascular en la población transmasculina.</italic></title>
				<p>A diferencia de lo observado en la población transfemenina, la mayoría de los estudios en hombres transgénero que reciben terapia androgénica han demostrado una clara asociación entre el tratamiento hormonal con testosterona y un aumento en los valores de presión arterial. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) Se ha observado un incremento de casi 11 mmHg en la presión arterial sistólica y de hasta 9 mmHg en la presión arterial diastólica después de un año de tratamiento. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) Diferentes estudios han propuesto que el deterioro de la función endotelial es un mecanismo subyacente en el desarrollo de hipertensión arterial en hombres transgénero que reciben tratamiento androgénico cruzado. Investigaciones que compararon la rigidez arterial, la respuesta vasodilatadora braquial (medida como el diámetro de la arteria braquial tras la oclusión con un manguito de presión arterial insuflado a valores suprasistólicos) y la velocidad de la onda de pulso en hombres transgénero tratados con testosterona, con los valores obtenidos en mujeres premenopáusicas de la población general y en hombres transgénero sin tratamiento hormonal, encontraron una disminución en la respuesta vasodilatadora y una asociación entre el tratamiento androgénico y el aumento de la rigidez del sistema vascular en estos pacientes.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>) </p>
				<p>Entre las posibles causas del aumento de la presión arterial en este grupo se consideran la alteración en la actividad del sistema de la endotelina-1, debido a la supresión de un receptor implicado en la síntesis de óxido nítrico, junto con un incremento en la actividad del SRAA. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>) Estos mecanismos también se han observado previamente en mujeres con SOP hiperandrogénico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>) </p>
				<p>En relación con los efectos de la testosterona en el perfil lipídico de los hombres transgénero, diversos estudios han revelado un impacto adverso del tratamiento hormonal. Un estudio retrospectivo longitudinal mostró un aumento estadísticamente significativo en los niveles plasmáticos de colesterol total, con concentraciones basales de 166 ± 35,1 mg/dL y 175,6 ± 38,2 mg/dL a los dos años. También se observó un incremento en los niveles de C-LDL, pasando de 103,8 ± 28,7 mg/dL a 112,8 ± 30,3 mg/dL. Los triglicéridos aumentaron de 70,6 ± 30,7 mg/dL a 102,3 ± 68,5 mg/dL, y los niveles de C-HDL disminuyeron de 52,2 ± 12,2 mg/dL a 45,4 ± 13,8 mg/dL .(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) Otros estudios obtuvieron resultados similares. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
				<p>En cuanto al metabolismo de la glucosa en los hombres transgénero, los resultados sobre el impacto del tratamiento con testosterona son contradictorios. Mientras que algunos estudios han observado un aumento estadísticamente significativo en los niveles de hemoglobina glicosilada asociado al tratamiento, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) una revisión sistemática sugiere que la terapia con testosterona no afecta la sensibilidad a la insulina y, en cambio, podría estar asociada con una mejora en el control glucémico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>) Sin embargo, al igual que en las mujeres transgénero en tratamiento estrogénico, en los hombres transgénero tratados con testosterona también se ha observado un aumento en el IMC. No obstante, este aumento podría atribuirse a que la terapia con testosterona incrementa la masa magra y disminuye la masa grasa. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>) Por otro lado, el estudio <italic>ENIGI</italic> no encontró variaciones significativas en el IMC con la hormonización. A pesar de que los hombres transgénero mostraron un riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular a largo plazo mayor que el óptimo calculado según sexo biológico, de acuerdo con la estimación realizada mediante la calculadora de riesgo de Framingham basada en este índice, estos resultados no se modificaron después de dos años de tratamiento androgénico. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
				<p>En cuanto a los eventos cardiovasculares en los hombres transgénero, el primer estudio observacional, publicado en 1989, no encontró diferencias estadísticamente significativas en las tasas de infarto ni en la mortalidad asociada al infarto en comparación con la población general. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>) Otro estudio mostró curvas de incidencia de tromboembolismo venoso, ACV e infarto de miocardio con patrones similares en los hombres transgénero en tratamiento hormonal (n=2118) y la población general. En relación con el infarto de miocardio, el hazard ratio (HR) fueron de 0,7 (IC 95% 0,3-1,8) en relación con los hombres de la población general y 1,3 (IC 95% 0,5-3,9) con respecto a las mujeres. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>) Estos resultados difieren parcialmente de los observados en otros estudios. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>) Alzahrani et al. encontraron que la población transmasculina tenía una probabilidad de infarto de miocardio dos veces mayor que la de los hombres de la población general (OR 2,53; IC 95% 1,14-5,68; p=0,02) y casi cinco veces mayor que la de las mujeres (OR 4,90; IC 95% 2,18-10,90; p&lt;0,01), luego de ajustar por otros FRCV. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>) </p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Estratificación de riesgo cardiovascular en los pacientes transgénero</title>
			<p>La enfermedad cardiovascular es la segunda causa de mortalidad entre la población transgénero, superada únicamente por el suicidio en términos generales de mortalidad por cualquier causa. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>) Los estudios que buscaron estratificar a los pacientes transgénero según su riesgo cardiovascular encontraron notables dificultades y limitaciones. El estudio <italic>ENIGI,</italic> que estimó el riesgo cardiovascular de los pacientes transgénero a 30 años utilizando el puntaje de Framingham basado en el perfil lipídico según su sexo biológico, demostró un aumento significativo en el riesgo tras el inicio de la THRG. El estudio reveló que tanto hombres como mujeres transgénero tienen un riesgo cardiovascular basal (previo a la hormonización) mayor que el de la población general, lo que sugiere la presencia de factores de riesgo cardiovascular adicionales a los tradicionales. En el caso de los hombres transgénero, dicho riesgo aumentó tras el inicio del tratamiento hormonal, mientras que en el caso de las mujeres transgénero se vio levemente disminuido tras el inicio de la THRG pero no de forma estadísticamente significativa. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
			<p>Según un estudio retrospectivo que estimó el riesgo cardiovascular en 427 pacientes transgénero sin tratamiento hormonal, de acuerdo con el sistema ASCVD <italic>risk calculator</italic>, la población transgénero sería la mayoritaria dentro de las categorías de riesgo cardiovascular más elevado, en comparación con la población general (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>) Además, los valores promedio del riesgo calculado para la población transgénero de entre 45 y 65 años mediante los puntajes QRISK3 y ASCVD <italic>risk calculator</italic> fueron de 12,2% y 8,3%, respectivamente. La diferencia observada entre ambas calculadoras de riesgo podría explicarse en parte por el uso de esteroides, las altas tasas de trastornos de salud mental y consumo de sustancias en esta población, factores que solo son considerados en la puntuación QRISK3.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Proporción de pacientes transgénero y de la población general (edad entre 40 y 79 años) en las diferentes categorías de riesgo (sistema <italic>QRISK3</italic>). Adaptado de Denby y cols. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>)</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-92-06-448-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Reflexiones finales y conclusiones</title>
			<p>La influencia de las hormonas sexuales en la salud cardiovascular es compleja. El impacto de la hormonización cruzada en los pacientes transgénero ha sido evaluado en numerosos estudios, pero estos presentan claras limitaciones metodológicas, ya que suelen ser retrospectivos y, en muchos casos, con un número reducido de pacientes. Con base en los efectos de la hormonización descritos para la población general en grandes ensayos clínicos aleatorizados, surge una pregunta clave: ¿son estos resultados directamente extrapolables a la población transgénero que recibe tratamiento hormonal cruzado? Se ha reconocido que existen diferencias sexuales en la salud cardiovascular, atribuibles tanto a variaciones genéticas asociadas al sexo biológico como a la interacción dinámica entre las hormonas. Los mecanismos epigenéticos juegan un papel crucial en este contexto y podrían explicar las diferencias en la respuesta del corazón y los vasos sanguíneos a las hormonas sexuales observadas en personas de sexo biológico femenino y masculino. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>) </p>
			<p>A la hora de determinar el riesgo cardiovascular de los pacientes que reciben THRG entran en juego tanto los mecanismos fisiológicos de las hormonas, como los efectos del tratamiento cruzado y los FRCV no tradicionales asociados a su condición minoritaria. En este sentido, no existen estudios que hayan evaluado cómo se aplican los puntajes de riesgo tradicionales a esta población. Por lo tanto, replantear las herramientas para la estratificación del riesgo cardiovascular en esta población específica, mediante el desarrollo de estimadores adaptados, representa un gran desafío para la cardiología actual.</p>
			<p>En los últimos años, ha aumentado el número de pacientes transgénero que buscan acceder a terapias hormonales para mejorar su bienestar y reducir el estrés y la disconformidad asociados a la disforia de género. Los efectos metabólicos de la terapia hormonal de reafirmación de género, combinados con los efectos del tratamiento cruzado y los FRCV no tradicionales asociados a su condición, impactan notablemente en la salud cardiovascular de estos individuos.</p>
			<p>En este contexto, es esencial implementar un programa de seguimiento cardiológico especializado para estos pacientes. La formación de grupos multidisciplinarios con experiencia en el tema podría contribuir a desarrollar mejores recomendaciones en futuras guías de prevención cardiovascular, ya que las recomendaciones generales no son totalmente aplicables a esta población tan particular.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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							<surname>Patil</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
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							<surname>Ferrando</surname>
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					<article-title>Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk in Transgender Patients Presenting for Gender-Affirming Care</article-title>
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	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7775/rac.v92.i6.20837</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>REVIEW ARTICLE</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Impact of Gender-Affirming Hormone Therapy on Cardiovascular Health</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-4917-668X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Bartolomé Roca</surname>
						<given-names>M. Camila</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5620-6468</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Masson</surname>
						<given-names>Walter</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9624-6424</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Falconi</surname>
						<given-names>Mariano</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0002-7264-6874</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Iroulart</surname>
						<given-names>Juan M.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5806-2755</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Blanco</surname>
						<given-names>Rocío</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-8063-8820</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pizarro</surname>
						<given-names>Rodolfo</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>MTSAC</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1 </label>
					<institution content-type="original"> Department of Cardiology , Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiology</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<city>Buenos Aires</city>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondence:</label> Camila Bartolomé. E-mail: <email>camila.bartolome@hospitalitaliano.org.ar</email>. Tte. Gral. Juan Domingo Perón 4190. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Argentina (Postal Code: C1199ABB). </corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
					<p>Miembro Titular de la Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn4">
					<label>Conflicts of interest</label>
					<p> None declared. (See authors' conflict of interests forms on the web).</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT </title>
				<p>Despite advances in the management of cardiovascular risk factors, the approach to the transgender population receiving hormone therapy is not completely defined. Transgender patients are those who present with &quot;gender incongruence,&quot; that is, a discrepancy between the individual's expressed gender and the designated gender, which generally corresponds to the biological sex. In these cases, hormonal treatment differs from the &quot;traditional&quot; approach in that it is a &quot;crossover&quot; hormonal treatment. Multiple studies have evaluated the relationship between gender affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), the development of cardiovascular risk factors and the occurrence of cardiovascular events, both for the transfeminine and transmasculine population. These findings are particularly relevant, as cardiovascular disease is the second leading cause of mortality in the transgender population. However, studies that have attempted to stratify this group according to their cardiovascular risk have faced notable difficulties and limitations. The aim of this review is to investigate the impact of GATH on cardiovascular health, to assess the need to reconsider risk stratification and therapeutic targets for these patients, and to discuss the applicability of general recommendations to this specific population.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>transgender people</kwd>
				<kwd>hormone replacement therapy</kwd>
				<kwd>cardiovascular disease.</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>) Despite significant advances in the management of cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) and the publication of numerous clinical practice guidelines, the approach to certain subpopulations in relation to cardiovascular prevention is still not completely well defined. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>) Within this group are patients receiving hormonal treatments, including those receiving gender affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), for whom specific recommendations on cardiovascular prevention, which are very clear for the general population, are not adequately defined. Given that numerous studies have reported the impact of these therapies on CVRF and an association between hormone treatments and the occurrence of cardiovascular events, the aim of this review is to investigate the impact of GAHT on cardiovascular health, to analyze whether risk stratification and therapeutic goals for these patients need to be reconsidered, and to discuss whether recommendations for the general population are applicable to this specific population.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Gender incongruence and &quot;crossover hormonization&quot;.</title>
				<p>Transgender patients are those who present &quot;gender incongruence&quot;, that is, a discrepancy between the gender expressed by the individual and the biological sex. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>) The incorporation of this term by the World Health Organization is intended to facilitate the diagnostic approach to issues related with gender identity, understood as the individual's perception of gender, and to guarantee access to health services for this population. Similarly, the term &quot;gender dysphoria&quot; refers to the distress experienced as a result of the aforementioned incongruence. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>) A transgender man is an individual whose biological sex is female, but whose gender identity is male, professing a gender transition from female to male. A transgender woman has a male biological sex, but with a female gender identity, posing a transition from male to female.</p>
				<p>As part of the depathologization of gender identities, the Gender Identity Law (Law No. 26,743) stipulates that all persons have the right to the free development of their person in accordance with their gender identity, and in this context, GAHT is presented as a therapeutic strategy whose objective is to eliminate the physical characteristics associated with the biological sex and to develop those of the perceived gender. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>) Hormone therapy protocols for these patients are based on the administration of estrogens and testosterone, and are detailed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>)</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Hormone schedules for gender-affirming therapy. Adapted from the National Ministry of Health. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>)</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col span="4"/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:white;">
									<th align="left" colspan="4">Estradiol: administration routes and dosage </th>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
									<th align="left">Route of administration</th>
									<th align="center">Presentation</th>
									<th align="center">Schedule</th>
									<th align="center">Dose</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Oral</td>
									<td align="center">17β-estradiol valerate </td>
									<td align="center">1 or 2 daily intakes</td>
									<td align="center">2 to 6 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left" rowspan="2">Transdermal</td>
									<td align="center">17β-estradiol 0.06% gel.</td>
									<td align="center">1 or 2 daily applications</td>
									<td align="center">0.75 to 3 mg (1.25 to 5 mg of gel)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="center">Estradiol patch</td>
									<td align="center">Replacement every 3 or 4 days</td>
									<td align="center">50 to 100 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:white;">
									<td align="left" colspan="4"><bold>Testosterone: administration routes and dosage</bold></td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
									<td align="left">Route of administration</td>
									<td align="center">Presentation</td>
									<td align="center">Scheme</td>
									<td align="center">Dose</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left" rowspan="3">Intramuscular</td>
									<td align="center">Injectable enanthate</td>
									<td align="center">Application every 15 to 21 days</td>
									<td align="center">250 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="center">Injectable cypionate</td>
									<td align="center">Application every 15 to 21 days</td>
									<td align="center">250 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="center">Undecanoate injection</td>
									<td align="center">Quarterly application (every 10 to 12 weeks)</td>
									<td align="center">1000 mg</td>
								</tr>
								<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
									<td align="left">Transdermal</td>
									<td align="center">1% testosterone gel</td>
									<td align="center">Daily application</td>
									<td align="center">25 to 100 mg (2.5 to 10 g of gel)</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Hormonization, risk factors and cardiovascular health: what evidence do we start from?</title>
				<p>Multiple associations have been established between hormone replacement therapies, the development of CVRF and the occurrence of cardiovascular events. The effects of hormone replacement therapy have been documented mainly in men with hypogonadism and in postmenopausal women.</p>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Estrogens, metabolism and cardiovascular events.</italic></title>
					<p>Regarding the impact of estrogens on the metabolic profile, numerous studies have shown a clear association between estrogen treatment and an improvement in the lipid profile. This treatment is associated with a decrease in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels and an increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations, although an increase in triglyceride levels is also observed. In turn, oral formulations have been found to cause more significant changes in these concentrations compared with transdermal formulations, and these effects are influenced by the dose administered. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>) In addition, a 25% reduction in lipoprotein(a) [(Lp(a)] levels was reported in women treated with oral estrogens, and that the association between this lipoprotein levels and the development of coronary heart disease would be modified by hormone treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>) Moreover, estrogens have been associated with a reduction in insulin resistance and an increase in C-reactive protein levels secondary to the use of oral formulations (not with transdermal formulations). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>)</p>
					<p>However, despite its beneficial impact on multiple components of the metabolic profile, the large randomized clinical trials <italic>HERS</italic> and <italic>WHI</italic> in postmenopausal women demonstrated that estrogen treatment carries an increased risk of major cardiovascular events, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous or pulmonary thromboembolism, to such an extent that the <italic>WHI</italic> study had to be prematurely stopped. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>) This could be explained, in part, by a reductive effect on protein S activity, which is involved in the degradation of coagulation factors, as well as by the potentially dual role of estrogens in the atherogenic process. Estrogens may have a beneficial effect on the healthy endothelium, but a negative impact on atherosclerotic disease with established plaques. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>) </p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Testosterone, metabolism and cardiovascular events.</italic></title>
					<p>Studies in men with hypogonadism have shown conflicting results regarding the impact of testosterone on the metabolic profile. Testosterone has been found to inhibit lipogenesis and promote lipolysis, which could have a beneficial effect on obesity and insulin resistance associated with this condition. However, in men with hypogonadism treated with exogenous testosterone, abrupt discontinuation of treatment may lead to increased fasting glucose levels. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>) On the other hand, although the use of anabolic androgens has been associated with an increased risk of hypertension, treatment with doses that equal physiological testosterone concentrations could have a beneficial effect on blood pressure. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>) Nevertheless, the effects of testosterone on atherosclerotic disease are still unclear. While some studies have found that treatment with physiological doses of testosterone is associated with a reduction in carotid intima-media thickness, other studies suggest opposite results. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>) </p>
					<p>Notably, the effects of androgens may differ significantly between the male and female cardiovascular systems. In women with hyperandrogenic polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), an association has been reported between this disorder and the development of left ventricular hypertrophy, impaired ventricular ejection fraction, and alterations in mitral filling. A tendency towards arterial hypertension has also been observed, which could be related to an impaired release of nitric oxide due to oxidative stress and activation of pathways leading to endothelial dysfunction. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>)</p>
					<p>Regarding the association with cardiovascular events, the <italic>TOM</italic> clinical trial observed that, in a group of men of approximately 75 years of age with testosterone levels in the hypogonadism range and a high prevalence of cardiovascular comorbidities, the use of exogenous testosterone was associated with a higher incidence of adverse cardiovascular events. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>) Other observational studies obtained similar results, with a higher cumulative incidence of all-cause death, hospitalization for major myocardial infarction or ischemic stroke in hormone-treated patients. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>) However, the recent <italic>TRAVERSE</italic> randomized clinical trial demonstrated, in a non-inferiority analysis, that hormone replacement therapy with testosterone in men with pre-existing or high risk of presenting cardiovascular disease has no significant difference compared with placebo in the occurrence of major cardiovascular events. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>)</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title><bold>Association of &quot;<italic>crossover</italic>&quot; hormonization with risk factors and cardiovascular events in transgender patients.</bold></title>
				<p>In transgender patients receiving GAHT, changes have been observed in CVRF as well as in the rate of cardiovascular events. This aspect is of particular interest, since in these cases the hormonal treatment differs from the &quot;traditional&quot; approach as it is a &quot;<italic>crossover</italic>&quot; hormonization.</p>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Estrogen crossover therapy and cardiovascular health in the transfeminine population.</italic></title>
					<p>Several studies have assessed the impact of crossover hormonization on CVRF in transgender women. Regarding its influence on blood pressure, the results of these studies have been contradictory. Overall, most of these studies suggest that crossover hormonization with estrogen is associated with an increase in blood pressure values, with documented increases of up to 4 mmHg in systolic blood pressure and 6.5 mmHg in diastolic pressure after only 1 year of treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) However, multiple studies that assessed changes in blood pressure did not observe significant differences when comparing these results with those of men in the general population. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>) According to a review article, endogenous testosterone in these patients would induce a vasopressor response mediated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>) Moreover, differences in the distribution of estrogen receptors in the female compared with the male cardiovascular system would contribute to oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction, mechanisms underlying the development of hypertension. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>)</p>
					<p>In relation to the lipid profile, although some studies have shown no variations after treatment initiation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) most have shown that estrogen therapy in transgender women is associated with favorable changes in lipid parameters, similar to those observed in postmenopausal women using oral estrogens. Among the most representative studies in this regard is the <italic>ENIGI</italic> study, conducted in four European gender clinics with a total of 144 transgender women. In this study, it was observed that the transwoman population experienced a reduction in total cholesterol of 7.66 mg/dL (95% CI 2.94-12.39) and a reduction of 4.65 mg/dL in LDL-C levels (95% CI 0.74-8.56) compared with baseline values after treatment initiation. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
					<p>In terms of glucose metabolism, parameters of insulin resistance and reduced incretin response have been observed in transgender women under hormone treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>) According to the American Heart Association (AHA), transgender women have a higher prevalence of diabetes compared with cisgender groups. The likelihood of developing diabetes in this group is twice as high as in women in the general population and six times higher than in men. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>) Changes in weight and body mass index (BMI) after initiation of hormone treatment could account for changes in the glycemic profile. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) </p>
					<p>In relation to documented cardiovascular events reported in the population of transgender women, a higher incidence of myocardial infarction, venous thromboembolic events, and ischemic stroke has been observed, as in postmenopausal women, compared with the general population. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>) One of the largest studies evaluating the incidence of events in 2842 transgender women, found a higher incidence of thromboembolic events and stroke in transgender women compared with men and women in the general population. In addition, a higher incidence of myocardial infarction was observed in the transwoman population compared with the reference cohort of women, although it was not higher than the incidence observed in the reference male cohort <bold>(</bold><xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>) Other studies have obtained similar results, (35-37) and one of them revealed that transgender women had an infarction rate of 7.8%, significantly higher than that of women in the general population. However, this study did not specify whether the patients included were receiving hormone treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>)</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Table 2</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Incidence of cardiovascular events in the transwoman population.</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col span="2"/>
									<col span="2"/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
										<th align="center" rowspan="2"><bold>Cohort and event of interest</bold></th>
										<th align="center" colspan="2">Transwoman cohort </th>
										<th align="center" colspan="2">Adjusted HR (95% CI)* </th>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border: 0; background-color:#ab0534;color:#ffffff;">
										<th align="center">Cardiovascular events (no.)</th>
										<th align="center">Incidence† (95% CI)</th>
										<th align="center">vs. men in the general population</th>
										<th align="center">vs. women in the general population</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr style="border: 0; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left" colspan="5">Overall transwoman cohort (n=2842) </td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Venous thromboembolism</td>
										<td align="center">61</td>
										<td align="center">5.5 (4.3-7.0)</td>
										<td align="center">1.9 (1.4-2.7)</td>
										<td align="center">2.0 (1.4-2.8)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Ischemic stroke</td>
										<td align="center">54</td>
										<td align="center">4.8 (3.7-6.3)</td>
										<td align="center">1.2 (0.9-1.7)</td>
										<td align="center">1.9 (1.3-2.6)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Myocardial infarction</td>
										<td align="center">33</td>
										<td align="center">2.9 (2.1-4.1)</td>
										<td align="center">0.9 (0.6-1.5)</td>
										<td align="center">1.8 (1.1-2.9)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border: 0; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left" colspan="5">Transwoman estrogen initiation cohort (n=853). </td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Venous thromboembolism </td>
										<td align="center">17</td>
										<td align="center">6.6 (4.1-10.6)</td>
										<td align="center">3.2 (1.5-6.5)</td>
										<td align="center">2.5 (1.2-5.0)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left"> - At 0-2-year follow-up</td>
										<td align="center">6</td>
										<td align="center">4.3 (1.9-9.6)</td>
										<td align="center">1.5 (0.5-5.1)</td>
										<td align="center">1.7 (0.5-5.5)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left"> - At &gt;2-year follow-up</td>
										<td align="center">11</td>
										<td align="center">9.3 (5.2-16.8)</td>
										<td align="center">5.1 (2.1-12.6)</td>
										<td align="center">3.2 (1.3-7.6)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Ischemic stroke </td>
										<td align="center">17</td>
										<td align="center">6.6 (4.1-10.6)</td>
										<td align="center">2.3 (1.2-4.3)</td>
										<td align="center">2.9 (1.5-5.5)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left"> - At 0-6-year follow-up</td>
										<td align="center">9</td>
										<td align="center">3.8 (2.0-7.3)</td>
										<td align="center">1.3 (0.6-2.9)</td>
										<td align="center">2.3 (1.0-5.4)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left"> - At &gt;6-year follow-up</td>
										<td align="center">8</td>
										<td align="center">36.2 (18.1-72.4)</td>
										<td align="center">9.9 (3.0-33.1)</td>
										<td align="center">4.1 (1.5-11.4)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr style="border-bottom: 2px solid white; background-color: #e3aea9;">
										<td align="left">Myocardial infarction</td>
										<td align="center">4</td>
										<td align="center">1.5 (0.6-4.1)</td>
										<td align="center">1.0 (0.3-3.2)</td>
										<td align="center">2.4 (0.6-9.4)</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; vs, versus.</p>
								</fn>
								<fn id="TFN5">
									<p>*Comparison with reference cohorts. Adapted from Getahun et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>)</p>
								</fn>
								<fn id="TFN6">
									<p>†Calculated as number of cases per 1000 patients/year.</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title><italic>Testosterone crossover therapy and cardiovascular health in the transmasculine population.</italic></title>
					<p>In contrast to what has been observed in the transfeminine population, most studies in transgender men receiving androgen therapy have shown a clear association between hormone treatment with testosterone and an increase in blood pressure values. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) An increase of almost 11 mmHg in systolic blood pressure and up to 9 mmHg in diastolic blood pressure has been observed after one year of treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) Different studies have proposed that impaired endothelial function is an underlying mechanism in the development of hypertension in transgender men receiving androgen crossover treatment. Investigations comparing arterial stiffness, brachial vasodilator response (measured as brachial artery diameter after occlusion with an inflated blood pressure cuff at supra-systolic values) and pulse wave velocity in testosterone-treated transgender men with values obtained in premenopausal women in the general population and in transgender men without hormone treatment, found a decrease in the vasodilator response and an association between androgen treatment and increased vascular system stiffness in these patients. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>) </p>
					<p>Possible causes of increased blood pressure in this group include altered activity of the endothelin-1 system, due to suppression of a receptor involved in nitric oxide synthesis, together with increased RAAS activity. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>) These mechanisms have also been previously observed in women with hyperandrogenic PCOS. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>) </p>
					<p>Several studies have revealed that testosterone treatment in transgender men has an adverse effect on the lipid profile. A retrospective longitudinal study showed a statistically significant increase in plasma total cholesterol levels, with baseline concentrations of 166 ± 35.1 mg/dL and 175.6 ± 38.2 mg/dL at 2 years. An increase in LDL-C levels was also observed, from 103.8 ± 28.7 mg/dL to 112.8 ± 30.3 mg/dL. Triglycerides increased from 70.6 ± 30.7 mg/dL to 102.3 ± 68.5 mg/dL, and HDL-C levels decreased from 52.2 ± 12.2 mg/dL to 45.4 ± 13.8 mg/dL. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>) Other studies obtained similar results. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
					<p>Results on the impact of testosterone treatment on glucose metabolism in transgender men are contradictory. While some studies have observed a statistically significant increase in glycosylated hemoglobin levels associated with treatment, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>) a systematic review suggests that testosterone therapy does not affect insulin sensitivity and, instead, could be associated with an improvement in glycemic control. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>) However, as in transgender women on estrogen therapy, an increase in BMI has also been observed in testosterone-treated transgender men, though this increase could be attributed to the fact that testosterone therapy increases the lean mass and decreases the fat mass. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>) On the other hand, the <italic>ENIGI</italic> study found no significant variation in BMI with hormonization. Although transgender men showed a higher long-term risk of cardiovascular disease than the optimum calculated according to biological sex, as estimated by the Framingham risk calculator based on this index, these results did not change after two years of androgen treatment. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
					<p>Regarding cardiovascular events in transgender men, the first observational study, published in 1989, found no statistically significant differences in infarction rates or infarction-associated mortality compared with the general population. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>) Another study showed incidence curves for venous thromboembolism, stroke, and myocardial infarction with similar patterns in transgender men on hormone treatment (n=2118) and the general population. In relation to myocardial infarction, HR values were 0.7 (95% CI 0.3-1.8) relative to men in the general population and 1.3 (95% CI 0.5-3.9) relative to women. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>) These results partially differ from those observed in other studies. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>) Alzahrani et al. found that the transmasculine population had a probability of myocardial infarction twice that of men in the general population (OR 2.53; 95% CI 1.14-5.68; p=0.02) and almost five times that of women (OR 4.90; 95% CI 2.18-10.90; p&lt;0.01), after adjusting for other CVRF. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>) </p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Cardiovascular risk stratification in transgender patients.</title>
				<p>Cardiovascular disease is the second leading cause of mortality among the transgender population, exceeded only by suicide in overall all-cause mortality. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>) Studies that sought to stratify transgender patients according to their cardiovascular risk encountered notable difficulties and limitations. The <italic>ENIGI</italic> study<italic>,</italic> which estimated the 30-year cardiovascular risk of transgender patients using the Framingham score based on the lipid profile according to their biological sex, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>) demonstrated a significant increase in risk after GAHT initiation. The study revealed that both transgender men and women have a higher baseline cardiovascular risk (i.e., pre-hormonization) than the general population, suggesting the presence of cardiovascular risk factors in addition to the traditional ones. In the case of transgender men, such risk increased after initiation of hormone treatment, whereas in the case of transgender women it was slightly decreased after GAHT initiation but not statistically significant. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>) </p>
				<p>According to a retrospective study that estimated cardiovascular risk in 427 transgender patients without hormone treatment, employing the ASCVD risk calculator system, the transgender population would be the majority in the highest cardiovascular risk categories compared with the general population (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>) Furthermore, the mean values of the calculated risk for the transgender population aged 45-65 years using the QRISK3 and ASCVD risk calculator scores were 12.2% and 8.3%, respectively. The difference observed between the two risk calculators could be explained in part by steroid use, high rates of mental health disorders, and substance use in this population, factors that are only considered in the QRISK3 score</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f2">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Proportion of transgender patients and the general population (aged 40-79 years) in the different risk categories (<italic>QRISK3</italic> system). Adapted from Denby et al.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>)</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-92-06-448-gf2.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Final reflections and conclusions</title>
				<p>The influence of sex hormones on cardiovascular health is complex. The impact of crossover hormonization in transgender patients has been evaluated in numerous studies, but these have clear methodological limitations, as they tend to be retrospective studies and, in many cases, with small number of patients. Based on the effects of hormonization described for the general population in large randomized clinical trials, a key question arises: can these results be directly extrapolated to the transgender population receiving crossover hormone treatment? It has been recognized that there are sex differences in cardiovascular health, attributable both to genetic variations associated with biological sex and to the dynamic interaction between hormones. Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role in this context and could explain the differences in the response of the heart and blood vessels to sex hormones observed in individuals of male and female biological sex. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>) </p>
				<p>When determining the cardiovascular risk of patients receiving GAHT, both the physiological mechanisms of the hormones and the effects of crossover treatment and nontraditional CVRF associated with their minority status come into play. In this regard, there are no studies that have evaluated how traditional risk scores apply to this population. Therefore, rethinking the tools for cardiovascular risk stratification in this specific population, through the development of adapted estimators, represents a major challenge for current cardiology.</p>
				<p>In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of transgender patients seeking access to hormone therapies to improve their well-being and reduce the stress and nonconformity associated with gender dysphoria. The metabolic effects of gender-affirming hormone therapy, combined with the effects of crossover treatment and the nontraditional CVRF associated with their condition, notably impact on the cardiovascular health of these individuals.</p>
				<p>In this context, it is essential to implement a specialized cardiological follow-up program for these patients. The formation of multidisciplinary teams with expertise in the subject could contribute to the development of better recommendations in future cardiovascular prevention guidelines, since the general recommendations are not fully applicable to this very particular population.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>-->
</article>