<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article
  PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.0 20120330//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.0/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.0" specific-use="sps-1.8" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">rac</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Revista argentina de cardiología</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Rev Argent Cardiol</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0034-7000</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1850-3748</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7775/rac.es.v93.i1.20869</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00002</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>EDITORIAL</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Nuevas variantes genéticas asociadas a miocardiopatía dilatada adquirida</article-title>
			<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>New Genetic Variants Associated with Acquired Dilated Cardiomyopathy</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-9271-666X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guerchicoff</surname>
						<given-names>Marianna</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				</contrib-group>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>2</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Jefe de Arritmias y Electrofisiología Infantil. Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires.</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Arritmias y Electrofisiología Infantil</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires</institution>
					<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
					<email>mguerchicofflemcke@gmail.com</email>
				</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>Dirección para correspondencia:</label> Marianna Guerchicoff. Correo electrónico: <email>mguerchicofflemcke@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
					<label><sup>1</sup></label>
					<p>Ex Directora Consejo de Cardiología Genética. Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
					<label><sup>3</sup></label>
					<p>Asesora Externa en Cardiología Genética, Instituto Cardiovascular Buenos Aires.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn4">
					<label>Declaración de conflicto de intereses:</label>
					<p> El autor declara que no tienen conflicto de intereses. (Ver formulario de conflicto de intereses en la web)</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<!--<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>26</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Jan-Feb</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>-->
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>Jan-Feb</season>
				<year>2025</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>93</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<fpage>3</fpage>
			<lpage>5</lpage>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="10"/>
				<page-count count="3"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec>
			<title>Bases del Score de Riesgo Poligénico</title>
			<p>En 2003 el Proyecto Genoma Humano reveló la primera secuencia del mismo: un “manual de instrucciones” contenido en el ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) una molécula presente en el núcleo de todas las células, formado por 4 nucleótidos o bases, citosina (C), guanina (G), timina (T) y adenina (A), en una secuencia de 3300 millones de ellas, que determina el código genético. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>) Así nació la era de la <italic>medicina genómica</italic>.</p>
			<p>Genómica es el estudio científico del ADN. Toda la información para “fabricar” un ser humano y mantener sus funciones representa sólo el 1 % del ADN. Llamamos genes a “segmentos” del ADN con instrucciones para fabricar proteínas. Creemos que los humanos tienen 25000 genes separados por grandes cantidades de ADN intergénico. La genética es el estudio de cada gen. </p>
			<p>La tecnología de secuenciación de próxima generación o NGS (<italic>Next Generation Sequencing</italic>) redujo los costos significativamente y aumento la eficiencia, permitiendo su utilización en lo que hoy se conoce como la era de la <italic>medicina postgenómica</italic>.</p>
			<p>La medicina postgenómica usa información del ADN de miles de individuos de diferentes razas para crear “patrones de referencia” de secuencias “normales”, actualmente basados en datos de población europea.</p>
			<p>En 2017, el Proyecto HapMap reveló que los humanos comparten el 99,9 % de la secuencia genética, es decir, son “casi idénticos”. </p>
			<p>Existen diferentes tipos de variantes genéticas. La más común es la sustitución de un nucleótido por otro. Si esta variante tiene una frecuencia mayor del 1 % en la población, se denomina variación de nucleótido único, en inglés <italic>Single Nucleotide Polymorphism</italic> (SNP).</p>
			<p>Algunas variaciones genéticas del ADN determinan la apariencia, otras la respuesta a drogas, algunas protegen o predisponen a padecer condiciones, o son directamente responsables de provocar enfermedades. De muchas aún no sabemos su implicancia.</p>
			<p>La cardiología genética estudia la asociación entre una variante genética de un paciente o población con la expresión génica o fenotipo. Si la variante se asocia con el fenotipo se demuestra la causalidad genética de la enfermedad. Estas variantes son conocidas como mutaciones; sin embargo la denominación correcta es “variantes genéticas patogénicas”.</p>
			<p>Este modelo “gen + mutación= enfermedad” puede seguir un patrón de expresión y de herencia mendeliana autosómica dominante; en este caso un portador de la mutación en general va a desarrollar la enfermedad con diferentes grados de gravedad, y tiene un riesgo del 50% de transmitirla a su descendencia sin importar el sexo. Estas mutaciones son poco frecuentes y son responsables de las enfermedades “monogénicas autosómico dominantes”, las más estudiadas e importantes en cardiología, especialmente dentro del grupo de las miocardiopatías dilatadas genéticas antes llamadas “idiopáticas o no isquémicas”.</p>
			<p>Los estudios del genoma o <italic>Genome Wide Association Studies</italic> (GWAS) incorporaron un paradigma diferente configurado según el esquema del “riesgo poligénico”. Este riesgo contempla muchos SNPs, frecuentes en la población general, en distintos genes que combinados pueden ejercer de manera aditiva gran efecto sobre la expresión de una condición. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>)</p>
			<p>La combinación de los efectos de todos estos SNPs capta gran parte de la <italic>heredabilidad genética</italic> y puede utilizarse para construir modelos de predicción o <italic>scores</italic> de riesgo poligénico (SRP), los que se consideran una medida cuantitativa de la susceptibilidad genética para calcular una “probabilidad individual”. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>)</p>
			<p>Dado que el genotipo germinal no se modifica, ello excluye la causalidad reversa, indicando que los SRP idealmente representan una medida estable no afectada por la edad ni por el medio ambiente. Pueden calcularse por única vez en cualquier momento y superan muchos obstáculos asociados a otros biomarcadores o modificadores del riesgo. La mayoría incluyen cientos y a veces miles de SNPs.(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>) </p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Fig. 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Confección de un score de riesgo poligénico </title>
						<p>DNA: ácido desoxirribonucleico; GWAS: estudios de asociación del genoma completo; SNP:polimorfismo de nucleótido único; SRP: score de riesgo poligénico</p>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-93-01-3-gf1.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Score de riesgo poligénico en prevención primaria</title>
			<p>Un SRP ideal permitirá predecir una condición con una variabilidad interindividual acorde con la variabilidad del rasgo estudiado, definiendo el <italic>endofenotipo</italic>, una posición intermedia en la vía “genotipo-endofenotipo-fenotipo”, reflejo de la predisposición genética individual. Un SRP ideal discrimina los endofenotipos en riesgo bajo, moderado o alto. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>)</p>
			<p>Comprender la arquitectura altamente poligénica de trastornos con una complejidad etiológica inherente, como aquellos con gran interacción entre factores ambientales y estilos de vida, puede permitir cambios en estos o un tratamiento farmacológico temprano en quienes presenten un endofenotipo con riesgo elevado. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>)</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Fig. 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Endofenotipos</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-93-01-3-gf2.jpg"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Score de riesgo poligénico en prevención secundaria</title>
			<p>El valor de los SRP en prevención secundaria está cobrando mucho interés. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>) Como en el trabajo de Principato y cols. lo es la función sistólica del ventrículo izquierdo, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>) el desafío es que el desenlace con el que se quiere medir el valor pronóstico del <italic>score</italic> esté definido de manera inequívoca. Los autores utilizan la fracción de eyección, que presenta una alta dependencia tanto de la geometría ventricular como del operador; tal vez en el futuro la valoración mediante resonancia magnética y el uso de la inteligencia artificial pueda mitigar este escollo. Cabe mencionar la importancia de que este trabajo además de incorporar el SRP, incluya algoritmos de inteligencia artificial. Sin embargo, sería deseable ampliar los criterios utilizados en la selección de los SNPs estudiados. </p>
			<p>En esta población con etnia del sur de Bolivia y norte argentino es de esperar frecuencias alélicas diversas, cuya consideración a futuro mejoraría la estimación permitiendo ajustar estadísticamente con la información ancestral. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>) Además, la inclusión de otros factores de riesgo como obesidad, tabaquismo, dislipemias, medio socioeconómico y acceso a la atención sanitaria de la población podrían optimizar la uniformidad dentro de la muestra. Se requerirá de nuevos estudios multicéntricos con selección aleatoria de los participantes para una validación externa posterior que evalúe el ajuste del modelo en otras poblaciones, con estrictos criterios de selección de pacientes. </p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Retos y perspectivas</title>
			<p>La utilización de los SRP para predecir una propensión causal genéticamente determinada e independiente de los factores de riesgo tradicionales que hasta ahora no han demostrado poder de detección en estadios presintomáticos o preclínicos, está aportando importantes conocimientos a la investigación de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, en especial de las miocardiopatías.</p>
			<p>No hay precedentes de estudios de SRP en miocardiopatía chagásica, y ello destaca la importancia de este trabajo, en la intención de la detección precisa de individuos que podrían beneficiarse de una intervención precoz, y la de tener datos locales.</p>
			<p>El potencial de los SPR ha llevado recientemente a los documentos de posicionamiento de la <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>) y de la <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic>. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>) Ambas desaconsejan el uso rutinario de SRP ya que aún existen muchos desafíos. Por ejemplo, los <italic>scores</italic> actuales solo evalúan SNPs “comunes”, sin investigar el potencial de incluir variantes raras como aquellas responsables de enfermedades monogénicas. </p>
			<p>Es fundamental llevar a cabo estudios prospectivos en poblaciones heterogéneas, garantizando el cumplimiento de estrictos estándares de calidad en el procesamiento e informe de datos, con protocolos rigurosos de control y marcos de referencia uniformes, que aseguren la validez y reproducibilidad de los resultados.</p>
			<p>La información genética, debido a su lenguaje poco familiar para los cardiólogos es menos intuitiva que cualquiera de los factores de riesgo, datos clínicos o de imágenes tradicionales, pero su correcta incorporación en nuestros modelos de predicción puede influir en la fuerza y la dirección de las decisiones compartidas para mejorar la calidad de la atención médica en la era de la medicina personalizada y de precisión.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ref-list>
			<title>Bibliografía</title>
			<ref id="B1">
				<label>1</label>
				<mixed-citation>GibbsRA. The human genome project changed everything. Nat Rev Gen 2020;21:575-6. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Gibbs</surname>
							<given-names>RA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>The human genome project changed everything</article-title>
					<source>Nat Rev Gen</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>21</volume>
					<fpage>575</fpage>
					<lpage>576</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B2">
				<label>2</label>
				<mixed-citation>SluneckaJL, van der ZeeMD, BeckJJ, JohnsonBN, FinnicumCT, PoolR, et al. Implementation and implications for polygenic risk scores in healthcare. Hum Genomics 2021;15:46. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y">https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Slunecka</surname>
							<given-names>JL</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>van der Zee</surname>
							<given-names>MD</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Beck</surname>
							<given-names>JJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Johnson</surname>
							<given-names>BN</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Finnicum</surname>
							<given-names>CT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Pool</surname>
							<given-names>R</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Implementation and implications for polygenic risk scores in healthcare</article-title>
					<source>Hum Genomics</source>
					<year>2021</year>
					<volume>15</volume>
					<fpage>46</fpage>
					<lpage>46</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y">https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B3">
				<label>3</label>
				<mixed-citation>IribarrenC, LuM, JorgensonE, MartínezM, Lluis-GanellaC, SubiranaI, et al. Clinical Utility of Multimarker Genetic Risk Scores for Prediction of Incident Coronary Heart Disease: A Cohort Study Among Over 51 000 Individuals of European Ancestry. Circ Cardiovasc Genet 2016;9:531-40. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Iribarren</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lu</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Jorgenson</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Martínez</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lluis-Ganella</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Subirana</surname>
							<given-names>I</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Clinical Utility of Multimarker Genetic Risk Scores for Prediction of Incident Coronary Heart Disease: A Cohort Study Among Over 51 000 Individuals of European Ancestry</article-title>
					<source>Circ Cardiovasc Genet</source>
					<year>2016</year>
					<volume>9</volume>
					<fpage>531</fpage>
					<lpage>540</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B4">
				<label>4</label>
				<mixed-citation>MarsN, KoskelaJT, RipattiP, KiiskinenTTJ, HavulinnaAS, LindbohmJV, et al. Polygenic and clinical risk scores and their impact on age at onset and prediction of cardiometabolic diseases and common cancers. Nat Med 2020;26:549-57. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Mars</surname>
							<given-names>N</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Koskela</surname>
							<given-names>JT</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ripatti</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Kiiskinen</surname>
							<given-names>TTJ</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Havulinna</surname>
							<given-names>AS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Lindbohm</surname>
							<given-names>JV</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Polygenic and clinical risk scores and their impact on age at onset and prediction of cardiometabolic diseases and common cancers</article-title>
					<source>Nat Med</source>
					<year>2020</year>
					<volume>26</volume>
					<fpage>549</fpage>
					<lpage>557</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B5">
				<label>5</label>
				<mixed-citation>England HE. NHS launches new polygenic scores trial for heart disease United Kingdom 2 0 2 1. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease">https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>England HE</collab>
					</person-group>
					<source>NHS launches new polygenic scores trial for heart disease United Kingdom 2 0 2 1</source>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease">https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B6">
				<label>6</label>
				<mixed-citation>LabosC, ThanassoulisG. Genetic Risk Prediction for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: an Update. Curr Cardiol Rep 2018;20:36. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Labos</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Thanassoulis</surname>
							<given-names>G</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Genetic Risk Prediction for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: an Update</article-title>
					<source>Curr Cardiol Rep</source>
					<year>2018</year>
					<volume>20</volume>
					<fpage>36</fpage>
					<lpage>36</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B7">
				<label>7</label>
				<mixed-citation>PrincipatoMB, PaolucciAG, Villa FernándezRC, CarvelliMV, SettepassiP, TomattiA, y cols. Nuevas variantes genéticas asociadas a miocardiopatía dilatada adquirida. Hacia un nuevo panel poligénico predisponente. Rev Argent Cardiol 2025;93:xxx-xxx. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7775/rac.es.v93.i1.20851">http://dx.doi.org/10.7775/rac.es.v93.i1.20851</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Principato</surname>
							<given-names>MB</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Paolucci</surname>
							<given-names>AG</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Villa Fernández</surname>
							<given-names>RC</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Carvelli</surname>
							<given-names>MV</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Settepassi</surname>
							<given-names>P</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Tomatti</surname>
							<given-names>A</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Nuevas variantes genéticas asociadas a miocardiopatía dilatada adquirida. Hacia un nuevo panel poligénico predisponente</article-title>
					<source>Rev Argent Cardiol</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<volume>93</volume>
					<fpage>xxx</fpage>
					<lpage>xxx</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7775/rac.es.v93.i1.20851">http://dx.doi.org/10.7775/rac.es.v93.i1.20851</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B8">
				<label>8</label>
				<mixed-citation>CardonLR, PalmerLJ. Population stratification and spurious allelic association. Lancet 2003;361:598-604. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Cardon</surname>
							<given-names>LR</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Palmer</surname>
							<given-names>LJ</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Population stratification and spurious allelic association</article-title>
					<source>Lancet</source>
					<year>2003</year>
					<volume>361</volume>
					<fpage>598</fpage>
					<lpage>604</lpage>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B9">
				<label>9</label>
				<mixed-citation>O'SullivanJW, RaghavanS, Marquez-LunaC, LuzumJA, DamrauerSM, AshleyEA, et al; American Heart Association Council on Genomic and Precision Medicine; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease. Polygenic Risk Scores for Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2022;146:e93-e118. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>O'Sullivan</surname>
							<given-names>JW</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Raghavan</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Marquez-Luna</surname>
							<given-names>C</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Luzum</surname>
							<given-names>JA</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Damrauer</surname>
							<given-names>SM</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ashley</surname>
							<given-names>EA</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<collab>American Heart Association Council on Genomic and Precision Medicine; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease</collab>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Polygenic Risk Scores for Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association</article-title>
					<source>Circulation</source>
					<year>2022</year>
					<volume>146</volume>
					<elocation-id>e93-e118</elocation-id>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
			<ref id="B10">
				<label>10</label>
				<mixed-citation>SchunkertH, Di AngelantonioE, InouyeM, PatelRS, RipattiS, WidenE et al. Clinical utility and implementation of polygenic risk scores for predicting cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J 2025:ehae649. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649">https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649</ext-link>
				</mixed-citation>
				<element-citation publication-type="journal">
					<person-group person-group-type="author">
						<name>
							<surname>Schunkert</surname>
							<given-names>H</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Di Angelantonio</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Inouye</surname>
							<given-names>M</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Patel</surname>
							<given-names>RS</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Ripatti</surname>
							<given-names>S</given-names>
						</name>
						<name>
							<surname>Widen</surname>
							<given-names>E</given-names>
						</name>
					</person-group>
					<article-title>Clinical utility and implementation of polygenic risk scores for predicting cardiovascular disease</article-title>
					<source>Eur Heart J</source>
					<year>2025</year>
					<elocation-id>ehae649</elocation-id>
					<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649">https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649</ext-link>
				</element-citation>
			</ref>
		</ref-list>
	</back>
	<!--<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>EDITORIAL</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>New Genetic Variants Associated with Acquired Dilated Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-9271-666X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Guerchicoff</surname>
						<given-names>Marianna</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>2</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>3</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Chief of Pediatric Arrhythmias and Electrophysiology . Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires.</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Pediatric Arrhythmias and Electrophysiology</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>Correspondence</label>: Marianna Guerchicoff. E-mail: <email>mguerchicofflemcke@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
					<label><sup>1</sup></label>
					<p> Former Director of the Council of Genetic Cardiology. Argentine Society of Cardiology.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
					<label><sup>3</sup></label>
					<p> External Genetic Cardiology Consultant, Instituto Cardiovascular de Buenos Aires.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn7">
					<label>Conflicts of interest:</label>
					<p> None declared. (See conflict of interest form on the website).</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec>
				<title>Basis of the Polygenic Risk Score</title>
				<p>In 2003, the Human Genome Project revealed the first sequence of the human genome: an ‘instruction manual’ contained in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a molecule present in the nucleus of all cells, made up of 4 nucleotides or bases, cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and adenine (A), in a sequence of 3300 million of them, which determines the genetic code. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">1</xref>). Thus the era of genomic medicine was born.</p>
				<p>Genomics is the scientific study of DNA. All the information to &quot;manufacture&quot; a human being and maintain its functions represents only 1% of the DNA. &quot;Segments&quot; of DNA with instructions for making proteins are called genes. We believe that humans have 25 000 genes separated by large amounts of intergenic DNA. Genetics is the study of each gene. </p>
				<p>Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology has significantly reduced costs and increased efficiency, allowing its use in what is now known as the era of post-genomic medicine</p>
				<p>Post-genomic medicine uses DNA information from thousands of individuals of different races to create &quot;reference patterns&quot; of &quot;normal&quot; sequences, currently based on European population data.</p>
				<p>In 2017, the HapMap Project revealed that humans share 99.9% of the genetic sequence, i.e., they are &quot;nearly identical.&quot; </p>
				<p>There are different types of genetic variants. The most common is the substitution of one nucleotide for another. If this variant has a frequency greater than 1% in the population, it is called a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).</p>
				<p>Some genetic variations in DNA determine appearance, others the response to drugs, some protect or predispose to suffer from certain conditions, or are directly responsible for causing disease. For many we still do not know the implications.</p>
				<p>Genetic cardiology studies the association between a genetic variant in a patient or population with gene expression or phenotype. If the variant is associated with the phenotype, genetic causation of the disease is demonstrated. These variants are known as mutations; however, the correct name is &quot;pathogenic genetic variants&quot;.</p>
				<p>This &quot;model gene+mutation=disease&quot; can follow a pattern of expression and autosomal dominant Mendelian inheritance; in this case a carrier of the mutation will generally develop the disease with varying degrees of severity, and has 50% risk of transmitting it to his or her offspring regardless of gender. These mutations are rare and are responsible for autosomal dominant monogenic diseases, the most studied and important in cardiology, especially within the group of genetic dilated cardiomyopathies formerly called &quot;idiopathic or non-ischemic&quot; cardiomyopathies.</p>
				<p>Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) incorporated a different paradigm configured according to the &quot;polygenic risk&quot; scheme. This risk contemplates many SNPs, in different genes, frequent in the general population, that combined can have an additive large effect on the expression of a condition. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">2</xref>)</p>
				<p>The combination of the effects of all these SNPs captures much of the genetic heritability and can be used to construct predictive models or polygenic risk scores (PRS), which are considered a quantitative measure of genetic susceptibility to estimate an “individual probability”. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>)</p>
				<p>Since the germline genotype does not change, this precludes reverse causality, indicating that PRSs ideally represent a stable measure unaffected by age and environment. They can be estimated on a one-time basis at any point in time and overcome many obstacles associated with other biomarkers or risk modifiers. Most include hundreds and sometimes thousands of SNPs. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">3</xref>)</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Fig. 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Polygenic risk score</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-93-01-3-gf3.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Polygenic risk score in primary prevention</title>
				<p>An ideal PRS will allow predicting a condition with an interindividual variability in accordance with the variability of the trait studied, defining the endophenotype, an intermediate position in the pathway “genotype-endophenotype-phenotype&quot;, reflecting the individual genetic predisposition. An ideal PRS discriminates endophenotypes into low, moderate or high risk. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">4</xref>)</p>
				<p>Understanding the highly polygenic architecture of disorders with an inherent etiological complexity may allow for changes as in those with high interaction between environmental factors and lifestyle, or early pharmacological treatment in those with a high-risk endophenotype. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">5</xref>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref> )</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Fig. 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Endophenotype</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1850-3748-rac-93-01-3-gf4.jpg"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Polygenic risk score in secondary prevention</title>
				<p>The value of PRS in secondary prevention is gaining much interest. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">6</xref>) As in the work of Principato et al. is left ventricular systolic function, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">7</xref>) the challenge is to identify clearly the outcome against which to measure the prognostic value of the score. The authors use left ventricular ejection fraction, which is highly dependent on both the ventricular geometry and the operator. However, in the future, assessment by magnetic resonance imaging and the use of artificial intelligence may mitigate this pitfall. It is worth mentioning the importance that this work, which, in addition to incorporating PRS, includes artificial intelligence algorithms. However, it would be desirable to expand the criteria used in the selection of the SNP studied. </p>
				<p>In this population with ethnicity from southern Bolivia and northern Argentina, diverse allelic frequencies should be expected, whose future consideration would improve the estimation, allowing statistical adjustment with ancestral information. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">8</xref>) In addition, the inclusion of other risk factors such as obesity, smoking, dyslipidemia, socioeconomic environment and access to health care of the population could optimize uniformity within the sample. Further multicenter studies with randomized selection of participants for external validation will be required to assess the fit of the model in other populations. </p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Challenges and perspectives</title>
				<p>The use of PRS to predict causal propensity genetically determined and independent of traditional risk factors that have so far not demonstrated detection power in presymptomatic or preclinical stages is bringing important insight to cardiovascular disease research, especially cardiomyopathies</p>
				<p>There are no precedents for studies of PRS in chagasic cardiomyopathy, and this highlights the importance of this work performed with the intention of having local data and accurately detecting individuals who could benefit from early intervention. </p>
				<p>The potential of PRS has recently led to position papers from the American Heart Association (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">9</xref>) and the European Society of Cardiology, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">10</xref>) both of which advise against the routine use of PRS as there are still many challenges. For example, current scores only assess &quot;common&quot; SNPs, without investigating the potential to include rare variants such as those responsible for monogenic diseases. </p>
				<p>It is essential to carry out prospective studies in heterogeneous populations, ensuring compliance with strict quality standards in processing and reporting data, with rigorous control protocols and uniform reference frameworks that ensure the validity and reproducibility of the results.</p>
				<p>Genetic information, because of its unfamiliar language to cardiologists is less intuitive than any of the traditional risk factors, clinical or imaging data, but its proper incorporation into our predictive models can influence the strength and direction of shared decisions to improve the quality of medical care in the era of personalized and precision medicine.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
		<back>
			<ref-list>
				<title>REFERENCES</title>
				<ref id="B11">
					<mixed-citation>1. Gibbs, RA. The human genome project changed everything. Nat Rev Gen 2020;21:575-6. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-020-0275-3</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B12">
					<mixed-citation>2. Slunecka JL, van der Zee MD, Beck JJ, Johnson BN, Finnicum CT, Pool R, et al. Implementation and implications for polygenic risk scores in healthcare. Hum Genomics 2021;15:46. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y">https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y">https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-021-00339-y</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B13">
					<mixed-citation>3. Iribarren C, Lu M, Jorgenson E, Martínez M, Lluis-Ganella C, Subirana I, et al. Clinical Utility of Multimarker Genetic Risk Scores for Prediction of Incident Coronary Heart Disease: A Cohort Study Among Over 51 000 Individuals of European Ancestry. Circ Cardiovasc Genet 2016;9:531-40. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001522</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B14">
					<mixed-citation>4. Mars N, Koskela JT, Ripatti P, Kiiskinen TTJ, Havulinna AS, Lindbohm JV, et al. Polygenic and clinical risk scores and their impact on age at onset and prediction of cardiometabolic diseases and common cancers. Nat Med 2020;26:549-57. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0</ext-link> .</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0800-0</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B15">
					<mixed-citation>5. England HE. NHS launches new polygenic scores trial for heart disease United Kingdom 2 0 2 1. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease">https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="webpage">
						<person-group person-group-type="author">
							<collab>England HE</collab>
						</person-group>
						<source>NHS launches new polygenic scores trial for heart disease United Kingdom 2 0 2 1</source>
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease">https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/blog/nhs-launches-new-polygenic-scores-trial-for-heart-disease</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B16">
					<mixed-citation>6. Labos C, Thanassoulis G. Genetic Risk Prediction for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: an Update. Curr Cardiol Rep 2018;20:36. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-018-0980-0</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B17">
					<mixed-citation>7. Principato MB, Paolucci AG, Villa Fernández RC, Carvelli MV, Settepassi P, Tomatti A, et al. New Genetic Variants Associated with Acquired Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Towards a New Predisposing Polygenic Panel. Rev Argent Cardiol 2025;93:14-24. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.7775/rac.v93.i1.20851">https://doi.org/10.7775/rac.v93.i1.20851</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.7775/rac.v93.i1.20851">https://doi.org/10.7775/rac.v93.i1.20851</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B18">
					<mixed-citation>8. Cardon LR, Palmer LJ. Population stratification and spurious allelic association. Lancet 2003;361:598-604. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12520-2</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B19">
					<mixed-citation>9. O'Sullivan JW, Raghavan S, Marquez-Luna C, Luzum JA, Damrauer SM, Ashley EA, et al; American Heart Association Council on Genomic and Precision Medicine; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease. Polygenic Risk Scores for Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2022;146:e93-e118. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077">https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001077</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
				<ref id="B20">
					<mixed-citation>10. Schunkert H, Di Angelantonio E, Inouye M, Patel RS, Ripatti S, Widen et al. Clinical utility and implementation of polygenic risk scores for predicting cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J 2025:ehae649. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649">https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649</ext-link>
					</mixed-citation>
					<element-citation publication-type="book">
						<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649">https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae649</ext-link>
					</element-citation>
				</ref>
			</ref-list>
		</back>
	</sub-article>-->
</article>