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<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="index">3220</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title specific-use="original" xml:lang="es">Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher" xml:lang="es">RSEA</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">1851-7471</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedad Entomológica Argentina</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>
<country>Argentina</country>
<email>gsanblas@mendoza-conicet.gob.ar</email>
</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
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<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="art-access-id" specific-use="redalyc">322083084009</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.25085/rsea.840411</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Revisiones</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es">
<bold>Sintiencia en insectos: reflexiones éticas para una Entomología del siglo XXI</bold>
</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">
<bold>Sentience in insects: ethical reflections for a 21st-century Entomology</bold>
</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>SALVO</surname>
<given-names>Adriana</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corresp1"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
<email>asalvo@unc.edu.ar</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>RUGNONE</surname>
<given-names>Fabricio</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/>
<email>frugnone@conicet.gov.ar</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>ZAVADIVKER</surname>
<given-names>María N.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/>
<email>maria.zavadivker@fbqf.unt.edu.ar</email>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
<name name-style="western">
<surname>CRESPI ABRIL</surname>
<given-names>Augusto C.</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"/>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5"/>
<email>crespi@cenpat-conicet.gob.ar</email>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Centro de Investigaciones Entomológicas. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. CONICET. Córdoba, Argentina</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">CONICET</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<institution content-type="original">Unidad Ejecutora Lillo (UEL-CONICET), San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">CONICET</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<institution content-type="original">Instituto de Biotecnología (FBQF-UNT), San Miguel de Tucumán Argentina; INVELEC (CONICET-UNT), San Miguel de Tucumán Argentina</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">CONICET</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<institution content-type="original">Laboratorio de Oceanografía Biológica (LOBio), Centro para el Estudio de los Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR-CENPAT-CONICET), Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">CONICET</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<institution content-type="original">Instituto Patagónico del Mar (IPaM), Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina.</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
<institution-wrap>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosc</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="corresp1">
<email>
<underline>
<italic>asalvo@unc.edu.ar</italic>
</underline>
</email>
</corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
<year>2025</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>84</volume>
<issue>4</issue>
<elocation-id>e0411</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received" publication-format="dd mes yyyy">
<day>26</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted" publication-format="dd mes yyyy">
<day>07</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<ali:free_to_read/>
</permissions>
<abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>En la Declaración de Conciencia Animal de Nueva York, la posibilidad de que los insectos posean experiencias conscientes ya fue reconocida. En este trabajo, se presenta una revisión basada en evidencias actuales que apoya dicha posibilidad y se ofrecen argumentos relevantes para el debate sobre su capacidad de sentir dolor y las implicancias éticas para la Entomología. Se exponen hallazgos relacionados a ocho criterios neurobiológicos y conductuales propuestos como indicadores de sintiencia. Se describen comportamientos complejos observados en insectos, como el juego, el aprendizaje social, el uso de herramientas, la transmisión cultural y el reconocimiento individual, los cuales desafían la visión tradicional de los insectos como autómatas. Se discuten las diferencias entre humanos e insectos, así como los sesgos y actitudes humanas que limitan nuestra empatía hacia estos animales. Como marco ético ante la incertidumbre, se propone el principio de precaución para guiar decisiones en investigación, educación, producción y control de plagas. Se promueve la adopción de métodos de colecta menos invasivos y se sugieren mejoras en las condiciones de bienestar en biofábricas. Finalmente, se identifican protocolos de sacrificio ético en dos etapas, diseñados para reducir al mínimo el sufrimiento individual.<bold/>
</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>In the New York Declaration on Animal Consciousness, the possibility that insects may have conscious experiences was acknowledged. In this work, a review based on current evidence is presented to support this possibility, and relevant arguments are offered for the debate on their capacity to feel pain and its ethical implications for Entomology. Findings related to eight neurobiological and behavioral criteria proposed as indicators of sentience are presented. Complex behaviors observed in insects—such as play, social learning, tool use, cultural transmission, and individual recognition—are described, challenging the traditional view of insects as automatons. Differences between humans and insects are discussed, along with human biases and attitudes that limit empathy toward these animals. As an ethical framework under uncertainty, the precautionary principle is proposed to guide decisions in research, education, production, and pest control. The adoption of less invasive collection methods is encouraged, and improvements in welfare conditions in insect biofactories are suggested. Finally, two-step ethical killing protocols designed to minimize individual suffering are identified.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave</title>
<kwd>Bienestar animal</kwd>
<kwd>Capacidades cognitivas en insectos</kwd>
<kwd>Dolor en insectos</kwd>
<kwd>Ética en Entomología</kwd>
<kwd>Principio de precaución</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Animal welfare</kwd>
<kwd>Cognitive capacities in insects</kwd>
<kwd>Ethics in Entomology</kwd>
<kwd>Pain in insects</kwd>
<kwd>Precautionary principle</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="1"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="219"/>
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<meta-value>3220</meta-value>
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</front>
<body>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>INTRODUCCIÓN</bold>
</title>
<p>Recientemente, más de 500 expertos en neurociencias entre ellos biólogos, médicos veterinarios, sociólogos y filósofos, firmaron en Nueva York la Declaración de Conciencia Animal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref6">Andrews et al., 2024</xref>). En ella, reconocen la posibilidad real de que los insectos puedan tener experiencias conscientes, cuestión que se ha debatido desde hace tiempo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref57">Dawkins, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref20">Barron &amp; Klein, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref111">Klein &amp; Barron, 2016</xref>; DeGrazia, 2020; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref4">Andrews, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref5">Andrews et al., 2025</xref>). La forma más básica de conciencia es tener experiencias subjetivas, es decir tener la impresión de que algo nos sucede como individuos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref20">Barron &amp; Klein, 2016</xref>), y se encuentra estrechamente ligada a la capacidad de los organismos para sentir dolor. El concepto inglés “sentience” y el español "<bold>sintiencia</bold>" (aún no oficialmente aceptado) hacen referencia a la capacidad de un organismo para experimentar el mundo de manera subjetiva, es decir, para valorar positiva o negativamente sus vivencias, como el placer, el hambre, la sed, la calidez o el dolor. Por su parte, el <bold>dolor</bold> se define como “una experiencia sensorial y emocional desagradable asociada con un daño tisular real o potencial, o descrita en términos de dicho daño” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref155">Raja et al., 2020</xref>). Debido a que se trata de una vivencia inherentemente individual, resulta difícil afirmar con certeza si los insectos sienten dolor. Sin embargo, si la respuesta fuese afirmativa, entonces existiría una responsabilidad moral respecto al modo en que los tratamos.</p>
<p>La declaración firmada en Nueva York representa un paso clave de la comunidad científica internacional que debería llevarnos, como entomólogos, a reconsiderar nuestras prácticas a la hora de estudiar y manipular a estos organismos. En nuestro país, los Comités Institucionales para el Cuidado y Uso de Animales de Laboratorio (CICUAL) apenas mencionan a los invertebrados entre los sujetos cuyo bienestar merezca consideración. No obstante, en otros países ya se incluyen a cefalópodos y crustáceos en los protocolos de bienestar animal, y se han logrado avances significativos en el diseño de condiciones de cría y experimentación adecuadas para invertebrados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref85">Freelance, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref205">van Huis, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref77">Fischer et al., 2023</xref>). Por tanto, sería deseable que todo entomólogo cuente con criterios bien fundamentados para tomar decisiones relacionadas con el bienestar de insectos en cautiverio, así como para asesorar a otros en dichas decisiones, ya sea en ámbitos científicos, educativos, productivos o comunitarios.</p>
<p>La sintiencia en insectos presenta múltiples dimensiones, todas valiosas e interesantes. Sin embargo, somos conscientes de que no podremos abordar todas en este artículo. Nuestro objetivo es ofrecer una visión general sustentada en evidencias actuales y presentar argumentos que sirvan de base para el debate con estudiantes, profesionales y personas interesadas en el tema. Empezaremos abordando el prolongado debate entre neurocientíficos sobre la posibilidad de que los insectos sientan dolor, para luego examinar los comportamientos complejos y estados emocionales que estos organismos pueden manifestar. A continuación, analizaremos las diferencias entre humanos e insectos, así como los sesgos y actitudes humanas que limitan nuestra empatía hacia estos animales. Dado que reflexionar sobre la sintiencia implica adoptar una perspectiva ética centrada en el individuo como sujeto capaz de experimentar sensaciones subjetivas, también abordaremos el dilema que plantea la aplicación de criterios éticos, tanto individuales como colectivos, al momento de definir qué tipo de consideración moral debería prevalecer (o ha prevalecido en la práctica) en nuestro trato hacia los insectos. Finalmente, propondremos algunas vías para repensar nuestras actitudes hacia los insectos en los distintos ámbitos en los que intervienen los entomólogos: la investigación científica, la enseñanza, la producción industrial y el control de plagas, a fin de que nuestras decisiones se fundamenten en criterios de responsabilidad y precaución acordes con la complejidad del tema.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>EVIDENCIAS DE SINTIENCIA EN INSECTOS</bold>
</title>
<p>Para abordar la cuestión de la sintiencia en cualquier organismo, es fundamental partir de un debate filosófico de larga data, conocido como el problema de otras mentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref4">Andrews, 2023</xref>); dicho problema señala que todo intento de comprender cómo podría ser la experiencia subjetiva de otro ser, especialmente si no es humano, está inevitablemente teñido de cierto grado de <bold>antropocentrismo</bold> y <bold>antropomorfismo</bold> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref137">Nagel, 1974</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref60"> de Waal, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref101">Harrison &amp; Hall, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref59">de Souza Valente, 2025</xref>). Es decir, tendemos a atribuir a los animales emociones, pensamientos y vivencias humanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref63">Döring &amp; Chittka, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref180">Scotto, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Desde nuestra perspectiva, los insectos no siempre muestran señales claras de dolor, y de hecho, exhiben comportamientos que, a primera vista, sugieren la ausencia total de sufrimiento. Un ejemplo frecuentemente citado es el del macho de mantis religiosa que continúa copulando mientras que la hembra le devora la cabeza, o el de ciertos grillos que llegan a ingerir sus propias vísceras tras sufrir heridas abdominales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref69">Eiseman et al., 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref1">Adamo, 2019</xref>). No obstante, es importante tomar con cautela este tipo de observaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref14">Barrett &amp; Fischer, 2024</xref>). A diferencia de los mamíferos, los insectos no siempre manifiestan una inmovilización análoga ante una lesión dolorosa, lo que podría deberse a que, dada su corta vida, la inmovilidad frente al dolor no ha resultado ser una estrategia adaptativa. En el caso del macho de mantis, por ejemplo, su aparente indiferencia al dolor durante el apareamiento contrasta con su respuesta defensiva frente a las conductas depredadoras de la hembra antes de que comience la cópula, apoyando la existencia de procesos de nocicepción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref71">Elwood, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Esto refuerza la idea de que la perspectiva humana del dolor no siempre es adecuada para comprender el comportamiento de otros animales, especialmente los más alejados evolutivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref101">Harrison &amp; Hall, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref161">Rodríguez-Rodríguez, 2024</xref>). Así, por ejemplo, el sistema nervioso de los insectos, aunque pequeño y anatómicamente distinto al de los mamíferos, es capaz de realizar funciones sorprendentemente complejas con gran precisión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref184">Simons &amp; Tibbets, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref127">Makarova et al., 2021</xref>). En este sentido, es sabido que los insectos ven a pesar de no tener corteza visual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref174">Sanes &amp; Zipursky, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). Este dato nos lleva a considerar que el dolor también podría procesarse a través de circuitos neuronales no homólogos a los mamíferos, pero funcionalmente equivalentes. Por lo tanto, la ausencia de evidencia no puede tomarse como evidencia de ausencia de dolor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref68">Durrant, 2024</xref>).</p>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>1. Neurobiología y nocicepción</bold>
</title>
<p>Considerando el conjunto de evidencia actualmente disponible, es más prudente hablar de la probabilidad de que un organismo experimente dolor que afirmar con certeza su presencia o ausencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref14">Barrett &amp; Fischer, 2024</xref>). Con este enfoque, se han propuesto ocho criterios conductuales y fisiológicos aplicables a distintos grupos animales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref28">Birch et al., 2021</xref>) y a insectos en general (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref90">b</xref>), que se detallan en los siguientes apartados. Bajo esta perspectiva, cuantos más indicadores de dolor se observen, mayor será la probabilidad de que el organismo en cuestión posea dicha capacidad. Sin embargo, hasta el momento se han estudiado pocas especies de insectos en este campo, lo que dificulta las generalizaciones. Finalmente, es necesario subrayar que las diferencias entre los estados inmaduros y adultos en insectos podrían implicar distintos niveles de sintiencia, por lo que es esencial investigar ambos estados por separado.</p>
<p>Un abordaje similar, basado en un gran número de indicadores fisiológicos, comportamentales y cognitivos, ha sido desarrollado detalladamente por la organización sin fines de lucro Rethink Priorities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref176">Schukraft, 2019a,</xref>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref177">b</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref178">c</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref179">d</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterio 1- <bold>Presencia de nociceptores:</bold> La <bold>nocicepción</bold> es el proceso mediante el cual un organismo detecta y responde de forma inconsciente a estímulos potencialmente dañinos, gracias a receptores especializados denominados nociceptores (Birch, 2021). En algunos insectos, se ha demostrado la existencia de neuronas multidendríticas ubicadas bajo la epidermis, cuyas membranas contienen canales iónicos sensibles que responden únicamente a estímulos nocivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). En larvas de <italic>Manduca sexta</italic> (L) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae), por ejemplo, estos canales han sido caracterizados como responsables de respuestas defensivas frente a daños en el tegumento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref38">Caron et al., 2020</xref>). Además, estudios realizados en <italic>Drosophila melanogaster</italic> Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae) han utilizado mutantes con canales iónicos bloqueados, lo que confirma que la ausencia de estos canales impide las respuestas típicas ante estímulos dañinos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref200">Tracey et al., 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterios 2 y 3- <bold>Regiones cerebrales integradoras e integración de la nocicepción: </bold>Un indicio relevante sobre la posibilidad de que un organismo experimente dolor es la existencia de regiones cerebrales capaces de integrar información sensorial proveniente de diversas fuentes, incluyendo la emitida por los nociceptores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). En los insectos, se han identificado varias estructuras cerebrales con funciones integradoras complejas, una de las más destacadas son los <bold>cuerpos fungiformes</bold>, considerados centros de aprendizaje, memoria e integración sensorial, y que han sido propuestos como asiento de una forma básica de “inteligencia” en insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref201">Traniello &amp; Avergués Weber, 2023</xref>). Estas estructuras están presentes en todos los insectos, excepto en los pececitos de plata (Zygentoma). Otra región clave es el <bold>complejo central</bold>, que participa en múltiples funciones, incluyendo la navegación espacial, el control de la locomoción, la memoria y, según evidencia reciente, también la nocicepción (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref20">Barron &amp; Klein, 2016</xref>). El <bold>cuerno lateral</bold> es otra estructura relevante, asociada principalmente a la memoria olfativa y a la regulación de comportamientos relacionados con el olfato. Recibe impulsos de múltiples modalidades sensoriales, lo que refuerza su papel como centro de integración (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref56">Das Chakraborty &amp; Sachse, 2021</xref>). Cabe destacar que estas estructuras no suelen estar presentes en los estados inmaduros de insectos con metamorfosis completa. En cambio, en especies con metamorfosis incompleta, se desarrollan de manera progresiva a lo largo de las etapas juveniles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref35">Buehlmann et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref195">Thiagarajan &amp; Sachse, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterio 4- <bold>Analgesia:</bold> Un indicador importante de la posible experiencia de dolor en un organismo es la modulación de su respuesta conductual ante estímulos nocivos mediante compuestos que actúan sobre el sistema nervioso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref144">Pasquini et al., 2025</xref>). Esta modulación puede darse por dos vías: 1) la acción de neurotransmisores endógenos que el propio organismo produce para atenuar sus respuestas frente a estímulos reales o potencialmente dañinos, 2) la reacción a compuestos exógenos como anestésicos locales, analgésicos (incluidos opioides), ansiolíticos o antidepresivos. En ambos casos, estos compuestos modifican la respuesta del insecto ante estímulos nocivos ya que se atenúa la experiencia de dolor, angustia o daño (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). Otros experimentos también han demostrado la acción de diversos compuestos opioides sobre insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref175">Santos-Silva et al., 2022</xref>). Por ejemplo, se ha demostrado que las cucarachas escapan más lentamente de una caja con temperatura elevada si se les inyecta morfina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref97">Gritsai et al., 2004</xref>), y que la morfina disminuye la agresividad que despliegan las abejas al recibir una ronda de descargas eléctricas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref140">Núñez, 1983</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterio 5- <bold>Compromisos motivacionales:</bold> Este término hace referencia a la capacidad de tomar decisiones de forma flexible, lo que implica un procesamiento integrador de la información (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref90">b</xref>). En este contexto, la <bold>flexibilidad conductual</bold> se interpreta como evidencia de que el insecto es capaz de evaluar el disvalor de un estímulo nocivo frente al valor de una posible recompensa. Para que se considere que existe un compromiso motivacional, debe demostrarse que el animal asigna valor a las distintas opciones disponibles y realiza comparaciones entre ellas utilizando una especie de “moneda común” interna (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). Uno de los ejemplos más representativos de este tipo de comportamiento proviene de estudios realizados con abejorros (<italic>Bombus terrestris </italic>L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref90">Gibbons et al., 2022b</xref>). En una primera etapa experimental, los insectos deben elegir entre dos ubicaciones: una de ellas está a una temperatura elevada, mientras que la otra se mantiene a temperatura ambiente y ambas contienen soluciones de sacarosa con igual concentración. Los comederos están etiquetados con diferentes colores y distribuidos espacialmente para que las abejas asocien su contenido a partir de estas señales visuales. Los abejorros muestran preferencia por alimentarse en el lugar con temperatura normal, tal como se esperaba. Además, continúan mostrando preferencia por la ubicación incluso cuando se quita la recompensa previamente asociada a la temperatura más baja, lo que demuestra memoria asociativa. En una segunda fase del experimento, se presenta una solución de sacarosa más concentrada en la ubicación con temperatura desagradable, mientras que en la otra la recompensa es muy inferior. Sorprendentemente, los abejorros eligen alimentarse en la ubicación incómoda, tolerando el estímulo aversivo del calor a cambio de una recompensa mayor. Incluso cuando se eliminan ambos estímulos (el calor y la sacarosa), los insectos siguen prefiriendo el lugar que les había reportado mayor beneficio. Este comportamiento demuestra que los abejorros no responden a estímulos de manera refleja, sino que son capaces de compensar motivaciones opuestas, como placer y malestar, basándose en la memoria de experiencias previas. Tal grado de flexibilidad sugiere un nivel de procesamiento cognitivo complejo, incompatible con una respuesta automática simple al dolor o a la recompensa.</p>
<p>●  Criterio 6- <bold>Autoatención:</bold> La presencia de comportamientos de autoprotección, como el acicalamiento, el frotamiento o la atención dirigida hacia zonas específicas del cuerpo que han recibido un estímulo nocivo, es un indicador relevante de la posibilidad de experimentar dolor. Estas conductas sugieren que el organismo no solo detecta el daño, sino que además actúa de forma localizada para aliviar o mitigar el malestar, lo que implica una evaluación interna del estado corporal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref50"> Crump et al., 2023</xref>). En abejorros, por ejemplo, se ha documentado un aumento significativo del acicalamiento de las antenas tras haber sido expuestas a calor, lo que indica una forma de autoatención específica al sitio afectado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref91">Gibbons et al., 2024</xref>). Este tipo de comportamiento también se ha observado en orugas en estadios tardíos de desarrollo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref210">Walters et al., 2001</xref>). Otro comportamiento relacionado es la autotomía, es decir, la eliminación voluntaria de apéndices dañados, conducta que se ha registrado en diversos insectos como chinches, grillos y bichos palo. Este mecanismo, si bien cumple una función adaptativa de escape o defensa, también ha sido interpretado como una posible manifestación de sensibilidad al dolor, ya que implica una respuesta localizada y específica ante el daño (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref72">Emberts et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref71">Elwood, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterio 7- <bold>Aprendizaje asociativo:</bold> Un criterio importante para evaluar la sintiencia es la capacidad del animal para aprender por asociación en contextos que involucran estímulos nocivos. Esto ocurre cuando el organismo es capaz de vincular un estímulo neutro con una experiencia dolorosa o cuando aprende a evitar activamente estímulos dañinos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref150">Pitman et al., 2009</xref>). Este tipo de aprendizaje asociativo supera el condicionamiento clásico o pavloviano, en el que un estímulo condicionado se presenta repetidamente junto a un estímulo incondicionado. Diversos estudios han documentado este tipo de comportamientos en insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref71">Elwood, 2023</xref>). Por ejemplo, las abejas que han sobrevivido a un ataque de una araña cangrejo automatizada desarrollan un patrón de vigilancia intensificada: antes de posarse sobre una flor, inspeccionan visualmente el entorno con mayor detenimiento. Este comportamiento, que se puede considerar como una forma de ansiedad o incluso como un estado similar al trastorno de estrés postraumático en humanos, reduce significativamente la probabilidad de ser predadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref103">Ings &amp; Chittka, 2008</xref>). Las larvas de mariposa también muestran capacidad de aprendizaje que persiste hasta la etapa adulta, lo que implica una transferencia de memoria a través de la metamorfosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref31">Blackiston et al., 2008</xref>). En langostas, se ha observado <bold>aprendizaje instrumental</bold>: aprenden a retirar una pata del agua para evitar una descarga eléctrica, o a mover una extremidad específica para impedir que se les administre un estímulo nocivo en la cabeza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref153">Punzo, 1980</xref>). Incluso insectos decapitados pueden mostrar cierto grado de aprendizaje, siempre que conserven intactos sus ganglios protorácicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref100">Harris &amp; Eisenstein, 1999</xref>). Un hallazgo particularmente llamativo se ha observado en adultos de <italic>D. melanogaster</italic> con patas amputadas, quienes tienden a evitar superficies calientes con mayor frecuencia que los individuos no lesionados. Este comportamiento ha sido interpretado como análogo a la <bold>alodinia</bold> en mamíferos, es decir, la percepción de dolor ante un estímulo que normalmente no lo provoca (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref109">Khuong et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>●  Criterio <bold>8- Preferencia por la analgesia</bold>: Este criterio evalúa si un animal demuestra valorar los compuestos analgésicos o anestésicos en contextos de daño físico. Se considera que un animal muestra preferencia por la analgesia cuando, al estar lesionado, cumple con una o más de las siguientes condiciones: a) aprende a autoadministrarse analgésicos o anestésicos, b) prefiere ubicarse en entornos donde puede acceder a dichos compuestos, y c) prioriza la obtención de estos compuestos por encima de otras necesidades, como la alimentación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>). Hasta el momento, solo se ha llevado a cabo un estudio orientado específicamente a evaluar este criterio en insectos, y los resultados no fueron concluyentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref98">Groening et al., 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf1">
<label>
<bold>Figura 1.</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Nivel de confianza para asegurar el cumplimiento de diversos criterios neurobiológicos que indican percepción de dolor de acuerdo a evidencias obtenidas de distintos órdenes de insectos.</bold>
</title>
<p>a. En adultos. b. En larvas o ninfas. En el panel de inmaduros, celdas con dos colores indican distinto nivel de confianza para primeros estadios larvales (izquierda) o estadios larvales tardíos (derecha) (Modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>)</p>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 1. Nivel de confianza para asegurar el cumplimiento de diversos criterios neurobiológicos que indican percepción de dolor de acuerdo a evidencias obtenidas de distintos órdenes de insectos.</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf2.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 1. Nivel de confianza para asegurar el cumplimiento de diversos criterios neurobiológicos que indican percepción de dolor de acuerdo a evidencias obtenidas de distintos órdenes de insectos.</alt-text>
</graphic>
<attrib>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons et al., 2022a</xref>
</attrib>
</fig>
</p>
<p>La<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1"> Figura 1a</xref> muestra la probabilidad de cumplimiento de cada uno de los ocho criterios mencionados para evaluar la sintiencia en insectos adultos de distintos órdenes, según la evidencia actualmente disponible. La <xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">Figura 1b </xref>muestra esa misma probabilidad, pero en estados inmaduros. Entre los adultos, moscas y cucarachas cumplen seis de los ocho criterios (75 %). Por otro lado, las abejas, avispas y hormigas (Hymenoptera) cumplen cuatro criterios (50 %), las mariposas y polillas (Lepidoptera) y los grillos y saltamontes (Orthoptera) cumplen tres (40 %), mientras que los escarabajos (Coleoptera) cumplen apenas dos (25 %) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">Fig. 1a</xref>). Debería quedar muy claro en este punto que los porcentajes en que se cumplen los criterios en cada orden no indican el porcentaje en que ese orden es sintiente. En cambio, la mención de porcentajes es simplemente para identificar en qué magnitud sería necesario aplicar medidas de precaución. Es importante señalar que la evidencia disponible proviene de un número limitado de especies dentro de cada orden, por lo que estas estimaciones deben interpretarse con cautela (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref50">Crump et al., 2023</xref>). En el caso de organismos inmaduros, la evidencia es escasa. En Diptera y Lepidopera se cumplen el 63 y 50 % de los ocho criterios; mientras que Blattodea (38 %), Coleoptera, Hymenoptera y Orthoptera (25 %) también cumplen algunos criterios de sintiencia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf1">Fig. 1</xref>b). Es importante destacar que en el caso de Hymenoptera la mayoría de los estudios se han realizado en larvas de abejas. Dado que estas larvas son altamente dependientes y pasivas, sus respuestas podrían no representar adecuadamente el comportamiento de otros himenópteros inmaduros que, en condiciones naturales, requieren una mayor capacidad de toma de decisiones y respuestas activas ante estímulos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>2. Comportamientos complejos</bold>
</title>
<p>El debate sobre si un organismo merece o no un trato ético suele centrarse en sus capacidades cognitivas. Algunos autores han afirmado que estas habilidades son requisitos previos para la sintiencia y la percepción del dolor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref57">Dawkins, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref70">Elwood, 2011</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref71">2023</xref>). Es razonable suponer que la evolución del dolor requiere ciertas funciones cognitivas, como la memoria y el aprendizaje, ya que el dolor cumple la función adaptativa de motivar al individuo a evitar daños futuros o mitigar los ya sufridos, aumentando así sus probabilidades de supervivencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref209">Villamor Iglesias, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Existen pruebas que demuestran sorprendentes capacidades cognitivas en insectos, especialmente en especies sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref43">Chittka, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref53">Czaczkes, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref44">Chittka &amp; Rossi, 2023</xref>), pero también en especies solitarias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref139">Nieberding et al., 2018</xref>). Se han documentado formas complejas de comunicación —visuales, químicas, auditivas y mecánicas—, así como una variedad de conductas que desafían la visión tradicional de los insectos como seres puramente instintivos. A continuación, mencionaremos sólo algunos comportamientos poco conocidos o particularmente notables observados en insectos. Algunos trabajos ofrecen evidencia general o específica de ciertos grupos de insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref92">Giurfa, 2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref93">2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref148">Perry et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref131">Mikhalevich &amp; Powell, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref53">Czaczkes, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref89">Gibbons, 2022a</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref201">Traniello &amp; Avergués Weber, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref215">Wen et al., 2024a</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Aprendizaje social y transmisión cultural en insectos. </bold>Este tipo de aprendizaje ocurre cuando un individuo adquiere información al observar a un congénere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref119">Leadbeater &amp; Chittka, 2007</xref>). En insectos, hay evidencia de que el aprendizaje social está presente en contextos como la selección de sitios para alimentarse, oviponer o evitar depredadores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref54">Danchin et al., 2018</xref>). La danza de las abejas, por ejemplo, constituye un lenguaje simbólico que permite a una obrera transmitir información sobre la ubicación de una fuente de alimento mediante movimientos precisos en la oscuridad de la colmena, combinados con señales químicas durante la trofalaxis. Aunque durante mucho tiempo se consideró una conducta innata, recientemente se ha comprobado que, al menos parte de esta habilidad, se adquiere por aprendizaje social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref44">Chittka &amp; Rossi, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref65">Dong et al., 2023</xref>). Vale mencionar que, para algunos autores, la mera capacidad de compartir información sobre la ubicación de las fuentes de alimento con sus conespecíficos y que éstos sean capaces de seleccionar a cuáles acudir en consecuencia, demuestra capacidades cognitivas equivalentes al planeamiento y cumplimiento de objetivos y deseos, consistentes con la sintiencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref39">Carruthers, 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>En estudios iniciados hace casi una década, investigadores lograron observar la transmisión cultural de habilidades individuales en colonias experimentales de <italic>Bombus terrestris </italic>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref2">Alem et al., 2016</xref>). De toda la población, sólo dos de cien individuos aprendieron a resolver un problema concreto: tirar de hilos para acceder a una flor artificial exhibida bajo un plato transparente y conseguir una recompensa alimenticia. El resto de la colonia adquirió esta conducta al observarlos directamente o a través de una barrera de vidrio. Los aprendices se convirtieron luego en instructores, manteniendo así la conducta a través de generaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref2">Alem et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref55">Danchin et al., 2024</xref>;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref216"> Wen et al., 2024b</xref>).</p>
<p>Insectos solitarios como <italic>D. melanogaster</italic> también muestran comportamientos de transmisión cultural. En experimentos que generan dos fenotipos de machos diferentes, se pudo demostrar que las hembras son capaces de identificar y preferir para la cópula a machos que previamente habían observado copulando, estableciéndose así una tradición conductual que perdura en la población (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref54">Danchin et al., 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Manipulación de objetos</bold>. Algunos insectos emplean herramientas de su entorno con fines distintos a la construcción de nidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref149">Pierce, 1986</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref215">Wen et al., 2024a</xref>). Por ejemplo, abejas que untan excremento de gallina alrededor de la colmena para repeler avispas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref130">Mattila et al., 2020</xref>), hormigas que utilizan granos de arena para tapizar superficies tóxicas y así poder transitar sobre ellas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref214">Wen et al., 2022</xref>), avispas solitarias que colocan cuerpos de hormigas muertas en sus nidos como defensa contra depredadores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref187">Staab et al., 2014</xref>), o chinches predadoras que untan sus patas con látex pegajoso para aumentar el éxito al capturar presas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref42">Chen et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Reconocimiento de conespecíficos</bold>. Algunas especies de avispas semisociales en el género <italic>Polistes</italic> Latreille (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) reconocen a sus congéneres y ajustan su nivel de agresividad en función de la "personalidad" del otro. En arenas experimentales se observó que, luego de observar contiendas entre individuos, las avispas son capaces de recordar a los que son particularmente agresivos y mostrarse sumisas frente a ellos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref184">Simons &amp; Tibbets, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref196">Tibbetts et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Aprendizaje inverso.</bold> El aprendizaje inverso es la capacidad de modificar el comportamiento para obtener una recompensa cuando cambian las reglas, es decir la capacidad de reaprendizaje. Esta habilidad es prueba de flexibilidad cognitiva y se ha observado en varios grupos de insectos, tales como larvas de <italic>D. melanogaster</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref81">Foley, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref128">Mancini et al., 2019</xref>), adultos de abejorros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref191">Strang &amp; Sherry, 2014</xref>), mariposas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref160">Rodrigues et al., 2010</xref>), abejas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref145">Pérez Claudio et al., 2018</xref>) y hormigas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref172">Sanabria et al., 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Atención médica</bold>. Se sabe que algunas hormigas cuidan de sus compañeras heridas: limpian cuidadosamente las lesiones y aplican secreciones glandulares con propiedades antibióticas. Además, si la herida es una pata, son capaces de discriminar el tratamiento y, si la lesión se encuentra en el fémur, realizan amputaciones que reducen la mortalidad por infección (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref83">Frank et al., 2023</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref84">2024</xref>).</p>
<p>
<bold>Comportamiento lúdico. </bold>Recientemente se ha comprobado que los abejorros juegan con bolitas de plástico en condiciones experimentales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref64">Dona et al., 2022</xref>). Para que se considere <bold>comportamiento lúdico</bold>, la actividad debe realizarse en ausencia de estrés, no implicar recompensa directa ni mejora del fitness, y presentar variabilidad entre ejecuciones. Los abejorros cumplen con todos estos criterios, y, al igual que en vertebrados, los individuos jóvenes tienden a jugar más que los adultos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref216">Wen et al., 2024b</xref>). Aunque es raro que se reporten comportamientos lúdicos en insectos, es probable que sean más frecuentes de lo que creemos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref222">Zylinski, 2015</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>3. Estados emocionales</bold>
</title>
<p>En los últimos años ha crecido notablemente el interés por identificar <bold>estados emocionales </bold>en insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref21">Bateson et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref9">Baracchi et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref146">Perry &amp; Baciadonna, 2017</xref>). Estos estados se definen como procesos que integran componentes fisiológicos, neuronales, conductuales y subjetivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref104">Jirkof et al., 2019</xref>), y pueden inferirse experimentalmente a partir de respuestas ante <bold>estímulos ambiguos</bold> —aquellos que se sitúan entre dos estímulos previamente aprendidos como positivos o negativos— (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref9">Baracchi et al., 2017</xref>). La variación intraespecífica en estas respuestas sugiere la existencia de <bold>“personalidades” </bold>entre congéneres, con individuos más o menos optimistas, activos o retraídos, ansiosos o tranquilos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref132">Mollá-Albaladejo &amp; Sánchez-Alcañiz, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Estos estados afectivos se han asociado con la acción de <bold>neurotransmisores</bold> homólogos a los implicados en emociones en vertebrados, tales como la dopamina, la octopamina, la serotonina, el neuropéptido F (NPF) y el ácido gamma-aminobutírico (GABA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref146">Perry &amp; Baciadonna, 2017</xref>). Estudios realizados en múltiples especies como abejas, moscas, grillos, hormigas, langostas y abejorros, han demostrado que estos compuestos modulan conductas complejas como agresión, memoria espacial, sesgo cognitivo negativo, expresión emocional ante recompensas inesperadas o división de tareas sociales (<xref ref-type="table" rid="gt1">Tabla I</xref>). La diversidad de paradigmas empleados y la consistencia de los hallazgos refuerzan la idea de que los insectos poseen <bold>estados internos persistentes</bold>, compatibles con una forma básica de experiencia subjetiva.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Barreras para la empatía hacia los insectos</bold>
</title>
<p>Las actitudes humanas hacia los animales son sumamente variables, tanto a nivel individual como colectivo. Factores como la cercanía filogenética con los humanos, las capacidades cognitivas y conductuales, la belleza percibida, la utilidad para las personas o una apariencia de vulnerabilidad tienden a generar una actitud negativa o positiva hacia ciertas especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref181">Serpell, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref129">Mather, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>En el caso de los insectos, nuestras actitudes suelen estar guiadas por dos dimensiones principales: la emocional y la utilitaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref107">Kellert, 1993</xref>). Considerando pocas excepciones, tales como el caso de las mariposas por su belleza y las abejas por su utilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref129">Mather, 2019</xref>), muchos grupos de insectos se ubican en el extremo negativo de ambas dimensiones: provocan rechazo, miedo o asco en el plano emocional, y en el plano utilitario suelen percibirse como perjudiciales o sin valor (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf2">Fig. 2</xref>). Las diferencias entre insectos y humanos son evidentes, y aunque puedan parecer obvias, conviene detenerse en algunas de ellas, ya que impactan directamente en nuestra empatía hacia estos animales. Su pequeño tamaño y el ínfimo peso individual, por ejemplo, favorecen una percepción de inferioridad, lo cual puede llevarnos a subestimar su complejidad neurológica. Cabe hacer aquí un paréntesis para señalar la enorme heterogeneidad de este grupo: en cuanto al tamaño corporal, por ejemplo, un bicho palo de 33 cm es unas 2500 veces más largo que un microhimenóptero que mide solo 0,13 mm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref80">Flindt, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>A menudo se ha argumentado que el reducido tamaño, el escaso número de neuronas y la aparente simplicidad del sistema nervioso de los insectos son barreras para el desarrollo de conciencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref69">Eiseman et al., 1984</xref>). Sin embargo, algunos insectos superan en peso a ciertos mamíferos pequeños, y sus cerebros contienen un número no mucho menor de neuronas que el de algunos reptiles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref127">Makarova et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>La corta duración de la vida de muchos insectos también tiende a disminuir nuestra valoración de su experiencia subjetiva. Existen casos extremos, como el de los adultos de ciertos Ephemeroptera, cuya vida se limita a unos cinco minutos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref194">Sweeney &amp; Vannote, 1982</xref>), o el de algunas polillas que viven apenas 24 horas. No obstante, en el otro extremo se encuentran hormigas reina que pueden superar los 30 años de vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref151">Porter &amp; Jorgensen, 1988</xref>), así como isópteros con longevidades similares, que incluso mantienen parejas estables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref37">Carey, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref106">Kartsev, 2014</xref>).</p>
<p>Otra razón que contribuye a la escasa empatía hacia los insectos es su enorme capacidad reproductiva, que tiende a diluir el valor percibido de cada individuo. Por ejemplo, la reina de <italic>Termes bellicosus</italic> (Smeathman) (Isoptera: Termitidae) puede poner unos 30.000 huevos al día; si consideramos una esperanza de vida de 10 años, eso representa cerca de 110 millones de huevos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref74">Fenton, 1952</xref>). Incluso entre insectos solitarios, la fecundidad puede ser asombrosa: una pareja de moscas domésticas, en condiciones ideales y sin enemigos naturales, podría originar una descendencia estimada en 10¹⁴ individuos durante su vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref213">Weidhaas &amp; Labrecque, 1970</xref>). Estos aspectos vuelven a los insectos vulnerables a sesgos humanos que nos instan a adjudicarles un valor inversamente proporcional a su cantidad. En otras palabras, tendemos a infravalorar lo que abunda en demasía y a sobrevalorar los bienes escasos. En el caso de los insectos, la ecuación entre su tamaño casi insignificante (que además nos induce a experimentar una condición de superioridad y de poder ilimitado sobre ellos) y su enorme tasa reproductiva, podrían operar como obstáculos que atentan incluso contra la voluntad de someter a discusión la cuestión sobre su status o relevancia moral.</p>
<p>La morfología tampoco ayuda a generar empatía. Si bien puede haber insectos que resultan atractivos, sobre todo por su coloración vistosa, la mayoría de ellos posee un exoesqueleto rígido e inexpresivo, que no transmite señales emocionales como lo haría un rostro mamífero. Además, el hecho de que el comportamiento de los insectos se rige principalmente por patrones instintivos, refuerza nuestra percepción de su carácter de autómatas o máquinas sin voluntad.</p>
<p>Por otro lado, la relación evolutiva entre humanos e insectos ha estado marcada por múltiples interacciones, muchas de ellas negativas. Nos pican, nos parasitan y transmiten enfermedades que, en algunos casos, han tenido efectos devastadores sobre poblaciones humanas. Esto ha generado una impronta cultural que nos lleva a asociarlos con miedo, asco o repulsión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref52">Curtis, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref121">Lockwood, 2013</xref>). Algunas de estas emociones negativas podrían incluso tener un componente innato, heredado de nuestros ancestros, y manifestarse en nuestro subconsciente: no es casual que los insectos sean protagonistas recurrentes en nuestras pesadillas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref110">Klein, 2011)</xref>.</p>
<p>Por último, cabe señalar que, por lo general, tendemos a alinear cuestiones ligadas a la consideración moral <italic>per se</italic> hacia individuos y especies; con las ventajas o desventajas que dicha consideración podría reportarnos, incluso llegando a confundir motivaciones genuinamente morales (el valor moral adjudicado a un organismo vivo como fin en sí mismo, por el sólo hecho de serlo) con la utilidad práctica que pueda llegar a reportarnos, ya sea por su valor en el circuito productivo, por el rol que juega en el ecosistema, etc. En otras palabras, asumimos que nuestra consideración moral estará en el fondo supeditada a una evaluación implícita de las ventajas o desventajas que los insectos pueden reportarnos en términos de nuestras propias metas, de modo tal que nuestro nivel de consideración empática hacia los insectos se topará, en última instancia, con nuestros intereses egoístas, los cuales impedirán que el altruismo sobrepase ciertos límites y atente contra nuestras propias metas adaptativas. Por otra parte, la psicología moral experimental ha estudiado algunos sesgos que afectan nuestras evaluaciones morales y que podríamos extrapolar a nuestras actitudes diferenciales hacia el mundo animal en general y a los insectos en particular. Uno de ellos es el llamado “<bold>efecto Knobe</bold>”, consistente en adjudicar malas intenciones a agentes que provocaron malos resultados (daños) como efecto colateral de sus acciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref113">Knobe, 2013</xref>). Este sesgo podría llevarnos a juzgar inconscientemente a los insectos como “malos” o “buenos” en función de nuestra evaluación subjetiva de los beneficios o daños que nos causan, como si fueran de algún modo “culpables” de provocar esos eventos negativos, incluso cuando la razón nos indica que, en términos generales, no cabe adjudicar categorías morales a los animales por carecer de libre albedrío -su comportamiento está mucho más sujeto a patrones genéticos pre-determinados cuya finalidad es la autopreservación y no “causarnos daño”. De allí que, por ejemplo, si pudiéramos erradicar mosquitos transmisores de enfermedades endémicas, o insectos venenosos causantes de numerosas muertes humanas, probablemente no dudaríamos en provocar su extinción; mientras que tendemos a adjudicar estatus y dignidad moral <italic>per se </italic>a aquellos insectos (como las abejas) que nos reportan grandes beneficios directos o indirectos.</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf2">
<label>
<bold>Figura 2</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Las dos dimensiones o ejes principales que suelen guiar nuestras actitudes hacia los insectos: eje afectivo-emocional (vertical) y eje utilitario (horizontal), con extremos positivos y negativos</bold>
</title>
<p>Se presentan ejemplos de insectos que podrían ubicarse en cada cuadrante, seleccionados desde el punto de vista de los autores. Afectivo-emocional positivo / Utilitario negativo (arriba izquierda): A- ciertas especies de mariposas, B- grillos, C- escarabajos, apreciados por su estética o simbolismo, pero percibidos como dañinos para los cultivos. Afectivo-emocional positivo / Utilitario positivo (arriba derecha): D- mariposa monarca, E- vaquita de San Antonio, F- abeja. Despiertan simpatía por su estética, tienen carácter icónico en distintas culturas y ofrecen servicios ecosistémicos (ej. especies bandera en conservación, polinización, control biológico). Afectivo-emocional negativo / Utilitario negativo (abajo izquierda): G- vinchuca, H- cucaracha, piojo. Asociados a enfermedad, suciedad y molestias. Afectivo-emocional negativo / Utilitario positivo (abajo derecha): J- larvas de dípteros K- avispa parasitoide, L- chinche acuática. Baja simpatía pese a su utilidad (ej. larvas saneadoras de heridas, avispa parasitoide usada en control biológico, chinche acuática bioindicadora de calidad de agua (modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref181">Serpell, 2004</xref>). La dimensión afectivo-emocional se ha abreviado como “emocional” en la figura</p>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 2 Las dos dimensiones o ejes principales que suelen guiar nuestras actitudes hacia los insectos: eje afectivo-emocional (vertical) y eje utilitario (horizontal), con extremos positivos y negativos</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf3.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 2 Las dos dimensiones o ejes principales que suelen guiar nuestras actitudes hacia los insectos: eje afectivo-emocional (vertical) y eje utilitario (horizontal), con extremos positivos y negativos</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>
<table-wrap id="gt1">
<label>Tabla I</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Neurotransmisores de insectos homólogos a los implicados en emociones en vertebrados, indicando la especie en la quefueron observados, el paradigma de estudio, el efecto sobre el insecto y las referencias</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Tabla I Neurotransmisores de insectos homólogos a los implicados en emociones en vertebrados, indicando la especie en la quefueron observados, el paradigma de estudio, el efecto sobre el insecto y las referencias</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gt2.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Tabla I Neurotransmisores de insectos homólogos a los implicados en emociones en vertebrados, indicando la especie en la quefueron observados, el paradigma de estudio, el efecto sobre el insecto y las referencias</alt-text>
</graphic>
</table-wrap>
</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Implicaciones éticas para entomólogos</bold>
</title>
<p>Llegados a este punto, resulta evidente que no podemos afirmar con certeza absoluta que los insectos sean capaces de experimentar dolor, y es posible que nunca alcancemos esa certeza. En este trabajo hemos partido de un examen de las evidencias disponibles sobre la posibilidad de sintiencia y facultades cognitivas complejas en insectos, asumiendo que las mismas proporcionarían una base firme para justificar cierto grado de consideración moral hacia ellos.</p>
<p>Dado que, tal como hemos intentado poner de manifiesto, dichas evidencias son limitadas e interpretables, en esta sección partiremos de la asunción del principio de precaución (PP) como guía general para el desarrollo de una Entomología responsable, comenzando por la exposición y análisis de sus argumentos fundamentales, para luego proponer una serie de aplicaciones prácticas concretas tendientes a la reducción de daños en diversos ámbitos que involucran el uso de insectos. Este marco defendido por Fischer et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref79">2025</xref>) respalda el enfoque de Birch et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref28">2021</xref>), que establece que tener alta o muy alta confianza en al menos cinco de los ocho criterios constituye evidencia suficiente para justificar medidas precautorias. Además, los autores ofrecen un argumento histórico condicional: si en 1970 se extendieron protecciones legales a las aves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref8">AWA (Animal Welfare Act), 1970</xref>) con evidencia que sólo satisfacía tres de los ocho criterios (y con menor calidad científica que la actual), entonces es coherente adoptar precauciones equivalentes para los insectos hoy, ya que la evidencia actual es más robusta y abundante. Este umbral representa una base suficiente para actuar sin necesidad de certeza absoluta, especialmente cuando los riesgos éticos de omitir acciones pueden ser significativos.</p>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>1. El Principio de Precaución</italic>
</bold>
</title>
<p>El PP emerge como una herramienta crítica para guiar decisiones éticas cuando nos enfrentamos a la incertidumbre sobre posibles daños derivados de nuestras acciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref154">Raffensperger &amp; Tickner, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref116">Kriebel et al., 2001</xref>). Originalmente aplicado en políticas ambientales —donde se insta a actuar ante amenazas serias "aun con ausencia de certeza científica" (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref141">ONU (Organización de las Naciones Unidas), 1992</xref>)—, este principio adquiere relevancia paradigmática al trasladarse al debate sobre el bienestar de los insectos. Steel (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref189">2015</xref>) lo describe como un concepto "influyente pero controvertido", diseñado para promover respuestas proporcionales ante riesgos inciertos sin caer en parálisis por análisis. Propone que una versión coherente del PP debe ser compatible con el uso de evidencia científica, servir como guía bajo incertidumbre y evitar decisiones arbitrarias. Sin embargo, su aplicación en la ciencia enfrenta una paradoja: mientras en la vida cotidiana operamos bajo máximas precautorias ("mejor prevenir que lamentar"), en la experimentación animal persiste un enfoque reactivo que exige evidencia concluyente de dolor antes de implementar salvaguardas éticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref192">Sunstein, 2002</xref>).</p>
<p>En el contexto de los insectos, esta contradicción se agudiza. El paradigma hegemónico —basado en una ética epistemocéntrica— posterga la consideración moral hasta demostrar sintiencia de manera irrefutable, ignorando que la naturaleza subjetiva del dolor hace imposible tal certidumbre (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref26">Birch, 2017a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref27">b</xref>). Esta resistencia se arraiga en dos temores: (1) que el PP paralice la investigación al imponer restricciones prematuras, y (2) que equiparar invertebrados con vertebrados en derechos éticos implique costos logísticos y económicos insostenibles. No obstante, como señala Birch (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref26">2017a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref27">b</xref>), esta postura omite que el PP no es binario: admite gradientes interpretativos, desde versiones débiles (que ponderan costos-beneficios) hasta fuertes (que prohíben acciones ante cualquier riesgo potencial). Stewart (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref190">2002</xref>) sintetiza cuatro aplicaciones prácticas: desde la no exclusión de actividades riesgosas hasta la prohibición absoluta, pasando por el uso de márgenes de seguridad y tecnologías menos invasivas.</p>
<p>La propuesta del Principio de Precaución para la Sintiencia Animal (PPSA) de Birch (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref26">2017a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref27">b</xref>) adapta este marco a la ética entomológica: cuando exista evidencia plausible —aunque no concluyente— de que un insecto pueda experimentar daño (p. ej., presencia de nociceptores, aprendizaje asociativo o analgesia), se justifica implementar medidas preventivas proporcionales. Este enfoque ha sido profundizado por Browning &amp; Birch (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref33">2022</xref>), quienes discuten su aplicación tanto en política pública como en ciencia, y subrayan la importancia de combinar evidencia parcial con razonamiento precautorio para fundamentar decisiones éticas. En el ámbito de la investigación científica, este marco adquiere un valor particular: permite fundamentar protocolos éticos incluso ante incertidumbre, apelando a la inferencia de la mejor explicación cuando los animales muestran indicadores como aprendizaje aversivo, evitación dirigida o decisiones costo-beneficio frente al dolor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref28">Birch et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref33">Browning &amp; Birch, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref6">Andrews et al., 2024</xref>). Esto es especialmente urgente en escenarios de escala masiva, como biofábricas donde billones de individuos son sacrificados anualmente, o en investigaciones que emplean métodos letales para conservar especies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref123">Lövei et al., 2023</xref>). Como advierte D'Silva et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref67">2024</xref>), el principio de precaución no solo debe guiar las decisiones científicas, sino también las prácticas productivas emergentes, garantizando condiciones que reduzcan el sufrimiento potencial. Frente a los extremos —la inacción por incertidumbre o la prohibición categórica—, el PPSA ofrece una vía pragmática: priorizar alternativas no letales, optimizar protocolos de sacrificio y reconocer que, en ausencia de consenso, la carga de la prueba debe recaer en quienes afirman que los insectos no sufren (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref50">Crump et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf3">
<label>
<bold>Figura 3</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Propuesta de flujo de toma de decisiones para reemplazar, refinar y reducir las capturas de insectos en la investigación biológica, indicando métodos alternativos que pueden ayudarnos a implementar estas mejores prácticas (modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref133">Montero-Castaño et al., 2022</xref>)</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 3 Propuesta de flujo de toma de decisiones para reemplazar, refinar y reducir las capturas de insectos en la investigación biológica, indicando métodos alternativos que pueden ayudarnos a implementar estas mejores prácticas (modificada de Montero-Castaño et al., 2022)</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf4.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 3 Propuesta de flujo de toma de decisiones para reemplazar, refinar y reducir las capturas de insectos en la investigación biológica, indicando métodos alternativos que pueden ayudarnos a implementar estas mejores prácticas (modificada de Montero-Castaño et al., 2022)</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>En definitiva, el PP no busca frenar el progreso científico, sino reorientarlo hacia una entomología responsable. Hasta el momento no se ha recabado ninguna evidencia que nos haga presuponer que los insectos no sienten dolor. La precaución no es sinónimo de prohibición, sino de innovación: desarrollar tecnologías que minimicen el daño, repensar la docencia sin colecciones letales y regular industrias desde un enfoque de Cinco Libertades adaptadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref166">Rowe et al., 2024</xref>) (ver punto 4, Producción industrial). La pregunta ya no es si los insectos sienten, sino cómo actuar ante la posibilidad de que lo hagan.</p>
<p>Comenzar a considerar el bienestar de los insectos nos enfrenta no solo a su enorme diversidad biológica, sino también a la pluralidad de contextos en los que interactuamos con ellos. Cada uno de estos contextos, implican dilemas éticos específicos que no pueden abordarse con una única lógica. Cuatro de estos contextos: investigación, educación, producción industrial y control de plagas son abordados a continuación.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>2. Investigación</italic>
</bold>
</title>
<p>En el ámbito académico, varios autores han señalado una paradoja persistente en estudios de ecología centrados en la conservación de insectos: estos trabajos, cuyo objetivo es preservar especies, emplean métodos de muestreo letales que implican el sacrificio de millones de individuos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref76">Fischer &amp; Larson, 2019;</xref>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref123">Lövei et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref122">Lövei &amp; Ferrante, 2024</xref>). Esta aparente contradicción, sacrificar individuos en masa para conservar especies, plantea una pregunta ética crucial: ¿pueden justificarse estos estudios frente al daño que infligen? El Código del Colector de insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref202">Trietsch &amp; Deans, 2018</xref>) es un excelente artículo que puede ayudar a un debate ético a quienes se inicien en la investigación con insectos. Sería siempre recomendable que docentes y directores responsables de proyectos puedan dialogar con los involucrados sobre los métodos a utilizar para la captura de insectos, integrando aspectos científicos y éticos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref188">Stack Whitney &amp; Whitney, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>En este sentido, el uso de <bold>métodos no letales</bold> representa una estrategia efectiva para reducir el daño que causamos al estudiar insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref14">Barrett &amp; Fischer, 2024</xref>). Aunque no siempre es posible implementarlos, cada investigador debería evaluar caso por caso, y tomar decisiones acordes a las preguntas y medios disponibles (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf3">Fig. 3</xref>). Una de las estrategias más relevantes es aprovechar insectos muertos por otras causas, tanto científicas como no científicas. En estudios de ecología de insectos esto sería particularmente difícil porque es necesaria la estandarización de los diseños de muestreo a fin de que sean replicables. Sin embargo, en otras áreas de la Entomología, no debiera descartarse tal posibilidad. En el ámbito científico, los especímenes colectados pero descartados por no ajustarse a los objetivos originales de un proyecto (conocidos como “bycatch” en inglés) pueden reutilizarse en investigaciones posteriores. Trampas de caída y trampas Malaise suelen generar grandes volúmenes de bycatch (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref76">Fischer &amp; Larson, 2019;</xref>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref94">González et al., 2020</xref>). Las trampas activas, que ofrecen algún tipo de atractivo al grupo de insectos de interés, siempre deberían ser preferidas a las pasivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref133">Montero-Castaño et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Promover la coordinación entre investigadores interesados en reutilizar el <italic>bycatch</italic> contribuiría significativamente a reducir el número total de insectos colectados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref186">Spears &amp; Ramírez, 2015</xref>). La utilización de refugios artificiales que hospeden a los insectos en ciertos hábitats y puedan mostrar su ocurrencia sin tener que matarlos, también es interesante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref171">Salman, 2020</xref>). Asimismo, insectos que mueren de forma no intencional, por ejemplo, muertos por el tráfico vehicular en rutas, pueden ser aprovechados para la investigación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref169">Russo, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>Las <bold>colecciones entomológicas</bold> también constituyen una valiosa fuente de información. Su creciente digitalización facilita el acceso a datos y especímenes sin necesidad de nuevas capturas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref183">Short et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref193">Svenningsen &amp; Schingel, 2024</xref>). A pesar de que muchas publicaciones científicas exigen conservar especímenes de referencia en colecciones institucionales, esta práctica no siempre se cumple, y numerosos insectos colectados terminan deteriorándose o están inaccesibles para la comunidad científica.</p>
<p>Un gran número de <bold>tecnologías emergentes</bold> reemplazan a técnicas de muestreo letales para el estudio de insectos (van <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref207">Klink et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf4">Fig. 4</xref>). El limitado conocimiento taxonómico de algunos grupos y la falta de fondos para la investigación científica son limitantes para su empleo en nuestro país y en otros países del Neotrópico. Las cámaras trampa permiten la detección e identificación de insectos sin necesidad de capturarlos, sobre todo cuando se integran con sistemas de inteligencia artificial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref47">Costello et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref30">Bjerge et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref221">Zeuss et al., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref152">Prudic, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref168">Roy et al., 2024</xref>) y los sistemas de muestreo automatizado por sonido han demostrado su eficacia para identificar especies de insectos con gran precisión (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref114">Kohlberg et al., 2024</xref>). Los radares por su parte, pueden detectar grandes enjambres de insectos, y proporcionar información detallada sobre insectos voladores, incluyendo su tamaño, forma, velocidad y trayectoria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref41">Chapman et al., 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref158">Rhodes et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>En la última década, se han desarrollado métodos genéticos no letales que permiten obtener ADN sin sacrificar al ejemplar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref45">Chua et al., 2023</xref>). Así, por ejemplo, se analiza material genético de insectos colectados en capullos pupales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref142">Ožana et al., 2020</xref>), de partes seccionadas del cuerpo, como alas o patas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref108">Keyghobadi et al., 2021</xref>), o de muestras tomadas del ambiente, ya sea suelo, agua o aire (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref162">Roger et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref29">Bierman &amp; Lloyd, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref211">Weber et al., 2024</xref>). En contextos agrícolas, es posible estimar mediciones de procesos ecológicos como la depredación, observando sus indicios en presas centinela, tales como orugas de plastilina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref75">Ferrante et al., 2024</xref>), sin que sea necesaria la determinación de abundancia de predadores mediante colectas de insectos.</p>
<p>Si tenemos en cuenta las inquietudes expresadas por diversos técnicos e investigadores, así como lo que señala la bibliografía, podríamos situar a las técnicas no letales en el lugar más respetuoso desde el punto de vista ético. Les seguirían métodos como el uso de redes de arrastre, donde los insectos colectados pueden ser sacrificados por enfriamiento y posterior congelación. Las trampas de caída causan una muerte bastante rápida, siempre que el conservante se coloque en concentraciones adecuadas y no se diluya con la lluvia. En el extremo menos ético quedarían las trampas adhesivas, que provocan una muerte lenta y traumática por inanición o aplastamiento, y que deberían utilizarse como último recurso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref188">Stack Whitney &amp; Whitney; 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Finalmente cabe mencionar que la <bold>ciencia abierta</bold>, concebida como el conocimiento accesible, compartido y desarrollado a través de redes colaborativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref217">Wilkinson et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref208">Vicente-Sáez &amp; Martínez-Fuentes, 2018</xref>), ofrece la oportunidad de disminuir el daño a los insectos en investigación. Facilitar el acceso a datos previos y promover la reutilización de información, puede reducir la necesidad de nuevas colectas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref51">Cuff et al., 2024</xref>). Gracias a las técnicas de metaanálisis, que son posibles cuando los datos están disponibles para quien los requiera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref218">Wittman &amp; Aukema, 2020</xref>), es posible responder diversas preguntas en el campo de la Entomología.</p>
<p>Los entomólogos también podemos intervenir en decisiones relacionadas con la <bold>experimentación con insectos</bold>. A medida que se acumula evidencia sobre la complejidad conductual, neurofisiológica y afectiva de los insectos, se vuelve cada vez más difícil justificar su exclusión automática de los marcos éticos que regulan el uso de animales en ciencia. Freelance (2019) sostiene que, frente a la incertidumbre sobre su sintiencia, pero con indicios crecientes de su posibilidad, es necesario adoptar un enfoque ético precautorio. En lugar de esperar certeza absoluta, propone medidas mínimas de respeto y protección que incluyan diseños experimentales responsables, aplicación flexible de los principios de <bold>reemplazo</bold>, <bold>reducción</bold> y <bold>refinamiento</bold> (3Rs), y la minimización del daño durante la experimentación.</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf4">
<label>
<bold>Figura 4.</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Colecta, procesamiento y variables obtenidas en cuatro tecnologías emergentes que pueden ser utilizadas para evitar el uso de métodos no letales en Entomología: visión artificial, monitoreo acústico, radar y métodos moleculares (modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref207">van Klink et al., 2022</xref>)</bold>
</title>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 4. Colecta, procesamiento y variables obtenidas en cuatro tecnologías emergentes que pueden ser utilizadas para evitar el uso de métodos no letales en Entomología: visión artificial, monitoreo acústico, radar y métodos moleculares (modificada de van Klink et al., 2022)</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf5.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 4. Colecta, procesamiento y variables obtenidas en cuatro tecnologías emergentes que pueden ser utilizadas para evitar el uso de métodos no letales en Entomología: visión artificial, monitoreo acústico, radar y métodos moleculares (modificada de van Klink et al., 2022)</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>Este enfoque se complementa con el marco ampliado de los <bold>12 Rs</bold> propuesto por Brink &amp; Lewis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref32">2023</xref>), que integra aspectos de bienestar animal, valores sociales e integridad científica. Esta propuesta expande los 3Rs clásicos para incluir principios como respeto, responsabilidad, regulación, reproducibilidad, relevancia y transferibilidad; y enfatiza la necesidad de una ciencia éticamente robusta, culturalmente sensible y científicamente rigurosa. Ambos enfoques convergen en un punto esencial: la necesidad de actuar éticamente incluso bajo condiciones de incertidumbre, reconociendo la posibilidad de sufrimiento en insectos y la responsabilidad de minimizarlo. Aplicar estos marcos no implica obstaculizar la investigación científica, sino más bien fortalecer su legitimidad, su calidad metodológica y su coherencia con los valores de una ciencia responsable, justa y cuidadosa. Volveremos sobre este tema al hablar de insectos que se crían a escala industrial.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>3. Educación</italic>
</bold>
</title>
<p>En el ámbito de la docencia superior, muchos cursos de Entomología incluyen la colecta de insectos y la presentación de una colección entomológica como requisito para aprobar. Dichas colectas a menudo son necesarias, ya que permiten a los estudiantes involucrarse en profundidad en los conocimientos, técnicas y prácticas de la Entomología. Sin embargo, a la luz de lo discutido hasta el momento, es previsible que aumente la resistencia por parte de docentes, y especialmente de estudiantes, frente a la realización de estas colectas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref36">Byrne, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref173">Sandhi et al., 2023</xref>). Al igual que en otros ámbitos que implican la utilización o sacrificio de seres vivos con fines educativos, sería recomendable incorporar un espacio de reflexión ética en los programas de estudio. Este espacio permitiría analizar críticamente las razones que justifican el uso de material biológico y brindar a los estudiantes la posibilidad de fundamentar sus decisiones en torno al tratamiento de los insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref203">Trout et al., 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref82">Fore &amp; Barrett, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref19">Barrett et al., 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>En este sentido, una alternativa válida consistiría en reemplazar la colecta de ejemplares por imágenes fotográficas obtenidas por los propios estudiantes, ya que los docentes suelen contar con material conservado que permite la observación de detalles morfológicos y la validación de las identificaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref76">Fischer &amp; Larson, 2019</xref>). Asimismo, actualmente existen numerosos sitios web que ofrecen imágenes de alta calidad y gran nivel de detalle de una amplia variedad de especies, lo que facilita la apreciación de la diversidad morfológica dentro de cada taxón. Entre estas plataformas destaca iNaturalist (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref15">Barrett et al., 2023a</xref>).<bold/>
</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>4. Producción industrial</italic>
</bold>
</title>
<p>Se calcula que entre 1 y 1.2 billones de insectos se crían anualmente en Europa, con proyecciones de crecimiento sostenido a nivel global, ya que la industria se posiciona como una alternativa más sostenible frente a la ganadería convencional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref163">Rowe, 2020a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref164">b</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref117">Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021;</xref>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref12">Barrett &amp; Adcock, 2023</xref>). En comparación con la ganadería tradicional, la cría de insectos ofrece ventajas significativas: menor costo ambiental, alta eficiencia en la conversión de alimento en biomasa, menores emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, bajo consumo de agua, posibilidad de cría en espacios reducidos y escaso riesgo de transmisión de patógenos al ser humano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref58">De Goede et al., 2013</xref>). Además, el hecho de que algunas especies puedan criarse exitosamente sobre excrementos de pollos, ganado o incluso de humanos ha favorecido el desarrollo de modelos de economía circular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref134">Moruzzo et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref40">Cattaneo et al., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref170">Safavi et al., 2024</xref>). Entre las especies más importantes cultivadas a escala industrial se encuentran la mosca soldado negra (<italic>Hermetia illucens </italic>L., Diptera: Stratiomyidae), el gusano de la harina (<italic>Tenebrio molitor </italic>L., Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) y diversas especies de grillos, principalmente <italic>Acheta domesticus</italic> (L.) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref10">Barrett, 2024a</xref>).</p>
<p>En la actualidad, ya se sacrifican más insectos que vertebrados terrestres de consumo, principalmente mamíferos y aves, y las proyecciones indican que, de reemplazar entre el 25 % y el 100 % del alimento balanceado utilizado en acuicultura, se requeriría una producción aún mayor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref163">Rowe, 2020a,</xref>
<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf5">Fig. 5</xref>). Esta tremenda expansión de la cría de insectos con fines industriales conducirá a la utilización de millones, e incluso miles de millones de individuos para alcanzar volúmenes de producción proteica comparables a los sistemas tradicionales. En consecuencia, también serán muy grandes los desafíos que enfrentaremos en términos de bienestar animal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref143">Pali-Schöll et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref197">Tiwasing &amp; Pate, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref204">van Huis, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref118">Lambert et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref25">Bermúdez-Serrano et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref11">Barrett, 2024b</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf5">
<label>
<bold>Figura 5</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Número de individuos utilizados para alimento humano y/o para alimento de otros animales destinados al consumo humano</bold>
</title>
<p>a. Datos de 2020. b. Estimado del número de individuos que serían necesarios si se reemplazara un 25 % o un 100 % del total de proteínas actualmente empleadas para alimentar peces, por proteínas obtenidas de insectos (datos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref163">Rowe, 2020a</xref>)</p>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 5 Número de individuos utilizados para alimento humano y/o para alimento de otros animales destinados al consumo humano</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf6.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 5 Número de individuos utilizados para alimento humano y/o para alimento de otros animales destinados al consumo humano</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>El uso masivo de insectos como solución ecológica no debe ignorar su bienestar. Estos organismos aún carecen de protección legal significativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref126">Magalhães-Sant’Ana, 2009</xref>), y podrían reproducirse los mismos errores de la ganadería intensiva, como el hacinamiento, el sufrimiento silencioso o la automatización sin consideración ética (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref13">Barrett &amp; Fischer, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Frente al avance industrial, los entomólogos que participan en el campo de la cría en masa de insectos deben aplicar la responsabilidad ética tanto a nivel individual como colectivo. Como plantean Crespi-Abril &amp; Rubilar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref48">2021</xref>), es necesario cuestionar el modo en que se ha “entrenado a los investigadores para desensibilizarse y reconfigurar su vínculo ético con los animales, naturalizando su reificación”. El bienestar de los insectos no puede abordarse con una única regla. Por lo tanto, se propone adaptar el marco de las “<bold>Cinco Libertades</bold>” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref212">Webster, 1994</xref>) al contexto de los insectos, ajustándolo según la especie y la etapa de desarrollo. Este enfoque considera las libertades de: acceso a alimento y agua; comodidad física; ausencia de dolor, lesiones y enfermedades; expresión del comportamiento natural; y ausencia de miedo y angustia. Tales consideraciones resultan especialmente relevantes en insectos holometábolos, debido a las marcadas diferencias entre larvas y adultos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref206">van Huis, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref62">Delvendahl et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref13">Barrett &amp; Fischer, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref112">Klobučar &amp; Fischer, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>
<fig id="gf6">
<label>
<bold>Figura 6</bold>
</label>
<caption>
<title>
<bold>Intersección entre tres marcos conceptuales clave: los cinco dominios del bienestar animal (nutrición, ambiente, salud, comportamiento y estado mental), las tres concepciones filosóficas del bienestar (funcional, afectiva y naturalista), y los principios de acción ética (3Rs clásicas y las ampliadas 5Rs, que incluyen Respeto y Responsabilidad).</bold>
</title>
<p>Esta superposición permite abordar el bienestar de insectos de forma multidimensional, reconociendo sus necesidades fisiológicas y comportamentales, y guiando la toma de decisiones éticas en contextos de investigación, producción y manejo (modificada de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref49">Crespi-Abril &amp; Rubilar, 2024</xref>)</p>
</caption>
<alt-text>Figura 6 Intersección entre tres marcos conceptuales clave: los cinco dominios del bienestar animal (nutrición, ambiente, salud, comportamiento y estado mental), las tres concepciones filosóficas del bienestar (funcional, afectiva y naturalista), y los principios de acción ética (3Rs clásicas y las ampliadas 5Rs, que incluyen Respeto y Responsabilidad).</alt-text>
<graphic xlink:href="322083084009_gf7.png" position="anchor" orientation="portrait">
<alt-text>Figura 6 Intersección entre tres marcos conceptuales clave: los cinco dominios del bienestar animal (nutrición, ambiente, salud, comportamiento y estado mental), las tres concepciones filosóficas del bienestar (funcional, afectiva y naturalista), y los principios de acción ética (3Rs clásicas y las ampliadas 5Rs, que incluyen Respeto y Responsabilidad).</alt-text>
</graphic>
</fig>
</p>
<p>En el ámbito del bienestar animal, se han propuesto marcos conceptuales que identifican puntos relevantes a considerar. El postulado fundamental de las 3Rs (reemplazo, reducción y refinamiento) resulta insuficiente como base para la manipulación de insectos. Dicho principio fue ampliado a las 5Rs donde se incorporaron el Respeto y la Responsabilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref48">Crespi-Abril &amp; Rubilar, 2021</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref49">2024</xref>). Sin embargo, otras propuestas indican que es necesario, en realidad, promover estados positivos que consideren concepciones funcionales (o fisiológicas vitales), afectivas (o estados mentales) y ambientales (desafíos del medio). Realmente, todos los enfoques propuestos que apuntan al bienestar de los individuos pueden ser unificados en un marco conceptual anidado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="gf6">Fig. 6</xref>). Esto evidencia la complejidad de factores que deben ser considerados a la hora de trabajar responsablemente con cualquier grupo de animales.</p>
<p>En muchos casos, las biofábricas operan sin tener en cuenta el comportamiento y las necesidades particulares de cada especie. Sin embargo, está aumentando el número de trabajos que analizan el bienestar de los insectos en las biofábricas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref23">Bear, 2021</xref>). Existen excelentes revisiones sobre grillos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref166">Rowe et al., 2024</xref>), mosca soldado (<italic>Hermetia illucens</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref16">Barrett et al., 2023b</xref>), gusanos de seda (<italic>Bombyx mori </italic>L.<italic>,</italic>
<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref165">Rowe, 2021</xref>), gusano de la harina (<italic>Tenebrio molitor</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref17">Barrett et al., 2024a</xref>) y abeja melífera (<italic>Apis mellifera</italic> L., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref88">Garrido &amp; Nanetti, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref179">Schukraft, 2019d</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref86">Formato et al., 2024</xref>), entre otras. Tomando el caso de <italic>Hermetia illucens</italic> como ejemplo, basta mencionar que persiste la afirmación errónea de que los adultos no se alimentan, a pesar de las evidencias que demuestran sus preferencias dietarias que afectan su reproducción y longevidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref198">Tomberlin et al., 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref138">Nakamura et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref157">Ramano et al., 2020</xref>). Desafortunadamente para los insectos, la perpetuación de la colonia es posible aunque los adultos no se alimenten, y por cuestiones logísticas o de simple comodidad, raramente se les ofrece alimento en este estado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref16">Barrett et al., 2023b</xref>), y los insectos mueren de hambre luego de una corta vida. Además, las altas densidades poblacionales pueden inducir comportamientos agresivos y canibalismo, lo que plantea serias dudas éticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref73">Erens et al., 2012</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>
<italic>5. Plagas</italic>
</bold>
</title>
<p>Los insectos afectan negativamente la vida humana de múltiples maneras, principalmente al competir con nosotros por los alimentos que producimos y al transmitir enfermedades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref219">WHO (World Health Organization), 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref24">Belluco et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref96">Grimaldi, 2023</xref>). Se consideran las plagas más perjudiciales y los esfuerzos por controlar sus poblaciones son intensos y sostenidos en el tiempo. La amplitud del tema del control de plagas nos obliga a ser concisos y a adoptar una perspectiva general para reflexionar éticamente sobre sus implicaciones. Empleamos una amplia variedad de estrategias, desde el uso de insecticidas convencionales hasta las formas más sofisticadas de manipulación genética. Esto plantea una pregunta central: ¿tenemos alguna obligación moral hacia los insectos que intentamos eliminar? Existe un continuo ético: cuanto mayor la escala del control, es decir cuando se apunta a la erradicación completa de la especie y no simplemente a la reducción numérica de las poblaciones perjudiciales, mayores son las implicancias morales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref66">Draney, 1997</xref>). Técnicas como los métodos autocidas aplicados a gran escala geográfica y las estrategias de edición genética dirigidas mediante CRISPR (“gene drive”), podrían llevar a la extinción local o incluso global de especies que consideramos indeseables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref87">Gantz &amp; Akbari, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref105">Kaebnick et al., 2025</xref>). Estas formas de control de plagas plantean riesgos éticos que se discuten poco a pesar de su creciente desarrollo y aplicación. El control químico, por su parte, implica la disponibilidad de cientos de productos al alcance de cualquier usuario, con efectos colaterales repetidamente documentados sobre organismos no blanco, incluidos los seres humanos (T<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref199">ostado &amp; Bollmohr, 2022</xref>). Desde la perspectiva de la sintiencia de los insectos como individuos, tema en el que se centra el presente artículo, es fundamental que los entomólogos que diseñan o respaldan medidas de control se formulen críticamente las siguientes preguntas: 1- Existe un método no letal para protegernos del insecto? 2- Existe un método menos dañino que otro para lograr los mismos objetivos? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref68">Durrant, 2024</xref>). Al hablar de menos dañino nos referimos al modo en que el insecto muere, la rapidez y la eficiencia del método a emplear, aspectos que serán abordados en la siguiente sección.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>Formas responsables de sacrificar insectos</bold>
</title>
<p>Cada vez que nos enfrentemos a la decisión de sacrificar un insecto, deberíamos detenernos a reflexionar sobre el modo en que lo haremos. El sacrificio de insectos raramente se hace con el objetivo de evitar sufrimiento. En la mayoría de los casos, se hace por conveniencia, sin cumplir con los criterios de la eutanasia ética, que implica un acto compasivo y considerado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref182">Shelomi, 2021</xref>). Es importante destacar que no todos los métodos de anestesia y eutanasia son adecuados para todas las especies y que los estudios al respecto son limitados. Sin embargo, hay un principio que debería ser universal: la muerte debe ser lo más rápida posible, idealmente en fracciones de segundo, para minimizar cualquier posible sufrimiento. Los métodos más recomendados para sacrificar insectos consisten en una sobredosis de anestésicos o bien deberían incluir dos pasos. En el primer paso, el insecto es anestesiado y en el segundo, que debe aplicarse antes de que se recupere de la anestesia, se debe destruir el sistema nervioso, lo que garantiza la pérdida irreversible de la conciencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref7">AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association), 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref102">Heniff et al., 2023</xref>). La anestesia puede lograrse en insectos mediante temperaturas ligeramente inferiores a cero grados, que conduce a <bold>coma por congelación</bold>, o mediante compuestos volátiles como el dióxido de carbono y el isoflurano, que causan <bold>coma narcótico</bold> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref125">MacMillan et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref46">Cooper et al., 2022</xref>). El segundo paso puede lograrse por métodos físicos, mecánicos y químicos. Entre estos métodos se encuentran el frío o calor excesivo, sumergir los insectos en agua hirviendo y la trituración mecánica. Los métodos químicos consisten en inyecciones de cloruro de potasio o ivermectina en el sistema nervioso o circulatorio (posible cuando el insecto tiene gran tamaño), ser sumergidos en diversos compuestos como eugenol, nitrógeno líquido, etc. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref135">Murray, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref220">Zachariah, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref124">Lum &amp; Keller, 2024</xref>). El uso de los métodos del segundo paso sin anestesia previa se considera un modo no humanitario para sacrificar insectos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref7">AVMA, 2020</xref>). Así, por ejemplo, la muerte por temperaturas extremadamente bajas (freezado) se considera dolorosa debido a la formación de cristales de hielo dentro de los tejidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref7">AVMA, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>En el contexto de las biofábricas, el dilema moral se intensifica, ya que mueren millones de individuos cada día. Los métodos de sacrificio más comúnmente empleados incluyen la exposición a temperaturas extremas, la inmersión en agua hirviendo o la trituración mecánica. Estas prácticas suelen ir precedidas de un periodo de inanición variable, cuyo objetivo es vaciar el tracto digestivo de los insectos antes del sacrificio. No obstante, determinar la duración adecuada de este ayuno es un reto, ya que debe ser lo suficientemente prolongado para cumplir su función, pero sin llegar a provocar comportamiento caníbal entre los individuos, lo que implica una necesidad constante de observación y ajuste. El sacrificio de los insectos debe ser lo más eficaz posible, es decir, debe afectar al mayor número posible de individuos de manera inmediata. En este sentido, incluso pequeñas modificaciones en el diseño de los dispositivos de trituración pueden marcar una diferencia significativa en términos de eficacia y velocidad del sacrificio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref18">Barrett et al., 2024b</xref>). En la actualidad, los biofabricantes de insectos operan en una zona gris en términos legislativos en la mayoría de los países, lo que les otorga un amplio margen de libertad para decidir si adoptan o no prácticas orientadas al bienestar animal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref22">Bear, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>En el caso de que sea necesario eliminar colmenas completas de abejas, ya sea por infestación con parásitos o por representar un riesgo para la salud pública debido a la africanización, debe prestarse especial atención a minimizar el sufrimiento colectivo. Dado que una colonia puede albergar miles de individuos, el método empleado debería inducir una pérdida de conciencia rápida e irreversible, seguida de una muerte igualmente rápida para la mayoría de las abejas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref136">Mutinelli, 2023</xref>). En este sentido, el uso de dióxido de azufre se considera el método más recomendable, debido a su rápida acción, bajo costo y facilidad de aplicación (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="redalyc_322083084009_ref167">Roy &amp; Vidal-Naquet, 2022</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>
<bold>CONCLUSIONES </bold>
</title>
<p>Los tiempos cambian y, con ellos, nuestras preguntas, certezas y responsabilidades. Hoy, la ciencia empieza a considerar seriamente la posibilidad de que los insectos puedan tener experiencias subjetivas, por lo que nosotros, como entomólogos, también estamos llamados a repensar la forma en que nos relacionamos con ellos. A pesar del interés que muchos tenemos por las cuestiones éticas, aún no contamos con espacios específicos donde discutir estos temas de forma regular y no siempre estamos adecuadamente preparados para incorporar consideraciones éticas en la toma de decisiones cotidianas. Sin embargo, como especie capaz de anticipar las consecuencias de nuestras acciones, nos corresponde asumir la responsabilidad de velar por el bienestar de los seres vivos con los que compartimos el planeta. No se trata de dejar de investigar, enseñar o manejar insectos, sino de hacerlo con responsabilidad, basada en evidencias y guiada por la ética profesional. Incorporar esta perspectiva puede enriquecernos, generar nuevas preguntas científicas y abrir espacios de diálogo con otros sectores de la sociedad. Tal vez nunca podamos saber con certeza qué sienten los insectos, pero sí existe la posibilidad real de que puedan sufrir, por lo que actuar con cuidado no solo es prudente, sino también profundamente humano.</p>
</sec>
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<p>AS: Búsqueda bibliográfica, escritura de borrador de manuscrito. AS, FR: Diseño y modificación de figuras, preparación de manuscrito final. AS, FR, MNZ, ACA: Escritura y revisión de manuscrito final</p>
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