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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">eg</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Enfermería Global</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Enferm. glob.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1695-6141</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Universidad de Murcia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.6018/eglobal.17.3.287231</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00001</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Originales</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Autocuidado del hombre con diabetes mellitus tipo 2: impacto del machismo</article-title>
				 <trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>Self-care of man with type 2 diabetes mellitus: impact of machismo</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Catalán</surname>
						<given-names>Geu Mendoza</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Cabriales</surname>
						<given-names>Esther Gallegos</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Gutiérrez Valverde</surname>
						<given-names>Juana Mercedes</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Estudiante de Doctorado en Ciencias de Enfermería. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Enfermería. Monterrey, N.L. México. gu_mendoza@yahoo.com.mx</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Facultad de Enfermería</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Monterrey</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
				<email>gu_mendoza@yahoo.com.mx</email>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Profesora, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Enfermería. Monterrey, N.L. México</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Facultad de Enfermería</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Monterrey</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="MX">Mexico</country>
			</aff>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub">
				<day>01</day>
				<month>07</month>
				<year>2018</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>17</volume>
			<issue>51</issue>
			<fpage>1</fpage>
			<lpage>13</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>09</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2017</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>27</day>
					<month>05</month>
					<year>2017</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/" xml:lang="es">
					<license-p>Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>RESUMEN:</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Objetivo</title>
					<p> Determinar si el machismo, apoyo familiar, la percepción de salud y la autoeficacia influyen en las actividades de autocuidado del hombre con diabetes mellitus tipo 2.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Metodología</title>
					<p> El diseño del estudio fue descriptivo correlacional, con una muestra de 126 participantes de 14 centros de atención primaria.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Resultados</title>
					<p> El machismo se correlacionó de manera negativa con el apoyo familiar y la autoeficacia. Mientras que el autocuidado se explicó el 30.5% de la varianza, las variables predictores fueron las conductas familiares, la autoeficacia, las sub-escalas del machismo; primacía del trabajo, ser independiente y violento.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusiones</title>
					<p> El machismo puede influir de manera directa al autocuidado y de manera indirecta, por medio del apoyo familiar y la autoeficacia. </p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>ABSTRACT:</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Objective </title>
					<p>To determine if machismo, family support, health perception and self-efficacy influence in the self-care activities of the man with type 2 diabetes mellitus.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Methodology </title>
					<p>The design of the study was correlational descriptive, with a sample of 14 primary attention centers.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results </title>
					<p>Machismo correlated negatively with family support and self-efficacy. While self-care was explained the 30.5% of the variance, the predictor variables were the family conducts, the self-efficacy, the sub-scales of machismo, work supremacy, being independent and violent.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusions</title>
					<p> Machismo may influence directly to self-care and indirectly, through family support and self-efficacy</p>
				</sec>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Diabetes mellitus tipo 2</kwd>
				<kwd>machismo</kwd>
				<kwd>apoyo familiar</kwd>
				<kwd>autoeficacia</kwd>
				<kwd>autocuidado</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Diabetes mellitus type 2</kwd>
				<kwd>machismo</kwd>
				<kwd>family support</kwd>
				<kwd>self-efficacy</kwd>
				<kwd>self-care</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="5"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="38"/>
				<page-count count="13"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUCCIÓN</title>
			<p>La diabetes mellitus se considera la pandemia del siglo XXI, causando altas tasas de hospitalización y muerte prematura.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>)</sup> En México la prevalencia de diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DMT2) se ha incrementado del 4.6% al 9.2% del año 2000 al 2012<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> ocupando actualmente el segundo lugar en mortalidad a nivel nacional en adultos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Los hombres con DMT2, en comparación con las mujeres, presentan complicaciones micro y macro vasculares con mayor frecuencia las que se asocian a una baja adherencia al tratamiento, lo que generalmente desemboca en hiperglucemias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>)</sup> Diversos estudios reportan que los adultos del sexo masculino diagnosticados con DMT2, afrontan la enfermedad con mayor laxitud que las mujeres, utilizan poco los servicios de salud y no perciben los beneficios del autocuidado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Una posible explicación es que el carácter de los hombres es producto de las circunstancias sociales dominantes; al hombre se le ha enseñado a ser fuerte, a no expresar emociones o temores que lo lleven a comportarse como un ser débil, aseguran no enfermarse y sentirse bien, por lo que no buscan atención médica. A este conjunto de conductas, actitudes y valores se le conoce como “machismo”.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>En México, el “machismo” lleva a los hombres a conductas de riesgo que les conducen a la perdida de salud <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref>, razón por la que se considera que la masculinidad expresada como “machismo” es un factor que puede limitar las acciones de cuidado a su salud cuando padecen DMT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Si los hombres enferman es la familia, principalmente la esposa, quien desempeña el papel de cuidadora apoyándoles en el cumplimiento del tratamiento médico, el cual implica modificaciones en el estilo de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>)</sup> Sin embargo, el cuidado familiar es insuficiente para lograr un apego apropiado a las recomendaciones médicas dadas al hombre adulto para controlar su enfermedad; el autocuidado es la conducta por excelencia que llevaría a estos pacientes a manejar el padecimiento crónico con mejores resultados en el control metabólico/glucémico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>El presente estudio enmarcó el problema del desapego al tratamiento de la DMT2 por adultos del sexo masculino en la Teoría del Déficit de Autocuidado de Orem<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref>, donde la teorista establece que el autocuidado es una función reguladora que los individuos realizan para alcanzar y mantener las condiciones óptimas asociadas con la vida, el funcionamiento y el desarrollo. En el contexto de la Teoría, se entiende que al enfermar, los individuos deben aprender nuevas formas de cuidarse, para lo que necesitan desarrollar capacidades especializadas (CAC) que sustentan y median las acciones de autocuidado (AAC) que les llevan a recuperar la salud o a mantenerla en el mejor estado posible. Tanto las AAC como las CAC están influidas positiva y/o negativamente por factores internos y externos a los individuos a los que la teorista denomina factores condicionantes básicos (FCBs). Estos conceptos se relacionan entre sí (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
			<p>El propósito global de la investigación que aquí se reporta fue doble: a) Determinar si factores como el machismo, el apoyo familiar, la percepción de salud y autoeficacia se predicen las acciones del autocuidado; y b) Evaluar el rol mediador de la autoeficacia en la predicción de las acciones de autocuidado, en adultos del sexo masculino diagnosticados con DMT2 bajo tratamiento ambulatorio.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
			<title>MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS</title>
			<p>El diseño fue descriptivo, transversal, correlacional. La población de interés fueron hombres adultos diagnosticados con DMT2 según criterios de la ADA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>);</sup> se calculó una muestra de 126 participantes, con nivel de significancia de .05, potencia del 90% y tamaño de efecto de 0.14<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref>. El muestreo fue no probabilístico. El reclutamiento se hizo en 14 Centros de Salud del municipio de Monterrey, Nuevo León. El estudio fue aprobado por la Comisión de Ética de la FAEN-UANL con registro FAEN-M-1099.</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f1">
					<label>Figura 1.</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Relación de conceptos de la teoría de autocuidado, conceptos deducidos e indicadores empíricos (variables)</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gf1.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
			<p>Criterios de Inclusión: Al menos 6 meses de haber sido diagnosticados con DMT2, lo que se verificó con los expedientes en los centros de salud; edad 20-59 años y cohabitar con al menos un familiar, información obtenida a pregunta expresa. </p>
			<p>El reclutamiento de participantes se realizó en dos formas: a) de los asistentes a consulta programada para control de DMT2 en cada centro de salud, se abordaron en la sala de espera antes de que fueran llamados a pasar con su médico; b) se realizaron visitas domiciliarias a pacientes cuyos datos estaban disponibles en los registros del Centro de Salud. En el primer contacto con los participantes se les explicó el estudio y en qué consistiría su participación si aceptaban ser parte del estudio; en caso positivo se les leía el consentimiento informado pidiéndoles firmar y el familiar que le acompañaba firmaba como testigo. Si tenía tiempo en ese primer encuentro se aplicaban los cuestionarios y practicaba la somatometría. Si no tenía tiempo se establecía una cita en el mismo centro de salud para somatometría y en su domicilio para el llenado de instrumentos. El levantamiento de datos se realizó de febrero a mayo de 2014.</p>
			<p>Mediciones</p>
			<p>Las mediciones consistieron en aplicación de instrumentos de lápiz y papel (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabla 1</xref>) y en toma de peso y talla con las cuales se calculó el IMC con la fórmula de Quetelet; se midió además las presión arterial siguiendo procedimiento estandarizado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> En la cédula de datos sociodemográficos se registró información sobre edad de los participantes, educación, número de familiares viviendo bajo el mismo techo, años con diabetes, presión arterial e IMC.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t1">
					<label>Tabla 1.</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Descripción de instrumentos de medición para variables de estudio.</title>
					</caption>
					<alternatives>
						<graphic xlink:href="tabla1-gt1.jpg"/>
					<table>
						<colgroup>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead>
							<tr>
								<th align="center">Instrumento</th>
								<th align="center">Variable que mide</th>
								<th align="center">No y tipo de reactivos/escala de respuesta</th>
								<th align="center">Especificaciones</th>
								<th align="center">Confiabilidad-Puntajes e interpretación</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody>
							<tr>
								<td align="left">Resumen de Actividades de Autocuidado de Diabetes (SDSCA)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center">Acciones de Autocuidado</td>
								<td align="left">14 reactivos Escala 0-7</td>
								<td align="left">Mide frecuencia de actividades los 7 días previos a la entrevista</td>
								<td align="left">Alfa de Cronbach 0.78 Puntuación 0-98 Las puntuaciones más altas indican mayor autocuidado. </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left">Escala de autoeficacia en el manejo de la DMT2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center">Autoeficacia en DMT2</td>
								<td align="left">20 Reactivos Escala tipo Likert 1-5</td>
								<td align="left">Evalúa las habilidades para cumplir con la alimentación, el auto-monitoreo de glucosa, revisión de los pies, el ejercicio físico y el peso, y el tratamiento médico.</td>
								<td align="left">Alfa de Cronbach 0.91 Puntuación 20-100 Las puntuaciones más altas indican mayor autoeficacia.</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left">La lista de conductas de la familia ante la diabetes II<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center">Apoyo y no apoyo familiar en la DMT2</td>
								<td align="left">16 reactivos Escala de tipo Likert 1-5</td>
								<td align="left">Evalúa las percepciones de los comportamientos de apoyo y no apoyo en la diabetes sobre la dieta, auto-monitoreo de glucosa, la toma de medicamentos y el ejercicio.</td>
								<td align="left">Alfa de Cronbach 0.89 Promedio 1-5 Las sub-escalas se evalúan por separado. En la de apoyo, el promedio más alto indica mayor apoyo familiar. En la de no apoyo, ell promedio más alto indica no apoyo familiar. </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left">Cuestionario de salud general SF12v2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center">Percepción del estado de salud</td>
								<td align="left">12 reactivos Escala tipo Likert 1-3 (Si me limita mucho-No me limita nada) y 1-5 (Siempre-Nunca). </td>
								<td align="left">Evalúa ocho dominios: Funcionamiento físico, dolor corporal, salud general, vitalidad, función social, papel emocional y salud mental</td>
								<td align="left">Alfa de Cronbach 0.90 Puntuaciones 0-100 A mayor puntuación mejor percepción del estado de salud. </td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left">Inventario de conformidad de normas masculinas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref>
								</td>
								<td align="center">Machismo</td>
								<td align="left">22 reactivos Escala tipo Likert 0-3 Totalmente en desacuerdo-totalmente de acuerdo</td>
								<td align="left">Mide 11 dimensiones: Dominio, control emocional, homofobia, mujeriego, poder sobre las mujeres, búsqueda de status, toma de riesgos, independencia, violencia, ganar y primacía del trabajo.</td>
								<td align="left">Alfa de Cronbach 0.69 Puntuación 0-66 A mayor puntuación mayor machismo</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</alternatives>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Análisis estadístico</p>
			<p>Para el análisis de datos se utilizó el programa estadístico <italic>Statistical Package for the Social Sciences</italic> (SPSS) versión 17.0 para Windows. Se utilizó la estadística descriptiva e inferencial. Se determinaron frecuencias y porcentajes para las variables categóricas y para las variables continuas se obtuvieron medidas de tendencia central (media) y de dispersión (desviación estándar) para descripción de las variables de estudio. De forma exploratoria, se aplicó correlación de Spearman entre las variables de estudio. Para el objetivo uno, determinar el poder predictivo de las variables seleccionadas sobre el AC, se ajustó un modelo de regresión múltiple con técnica Backward.</p>
			<p>Para evaluar el rol mediador de la autoeficacia se siguió lo señalado por Baron y Kenny<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref>. Bajo este modelo se estableció la mediación de la autoeficacia entre Percepción del estado de salud, apoyo social y la subescala de Machismo “Control de emociones” (FCBs) y el auto-cuidado. Cada una de estas variables, se relacionó con el AC (primera relación); así mismo con la variable autoeficacia (segunda relación). En una tercera etapa se corrieron tres modelos de regresión múltiple, donde la variable predictora en cada uno de ellos fue: estado de salud, apoyo social y control de emociones, la mediadora autoeficacia y el resultado el AC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
			<p>
				<fig id="f2">
					<label>Figura 2.</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Modelo de mediación de autoeficacia en DMT2</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gf2.png"/>
				</fig>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>RESULTADOS</title>
			<p>Características de los participantes y variables de estudio</p>
			<p>Como se observa en la <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabla 2</xref>, la muestra final fue de 126 participantes, con edad promedio de 49.3 años (DE = 7.05), escolaridad de 8.3 años (DE = 3.1) y familiares viviendo bajo el mismo techo de 3.2 (DE = 1.6). Clínicamente se caracterizaron por tener un promedio de 7.6 años (DE = 4.9) de haber sido diagnosticados; 47.6% de ellos con sobrepeso, 27.8% con obesidad y el 30% presentó hipertensión arterial (&gt;140/90) al momento de la medición. Se reportan además puntajes promedio obtenidos en las escalas.</p>
			<p>Correlaciones de las variables de estudio</p>
			<p>Previo al análisis inferencial se verificó la normalidad en variables continuas, bajo la prueba de Kolmogorov-Smirnov con la corrección de Lilliefors; los resultados mostraron que sólo el IMC presentó normalidad. </p>
			<p>En el análisis bivariado, el machismo se correlacionó de manera negativa con la escolaridad, el apoyo familiar y la autoeficacia. El autocuidado se correlacionó de manera negativa con el número de familiares y de forma positiva con el apoyo familiar, la percepción del estado de salud y la autoeficacia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabla 2</xref>). Al introducir la variable del machismo por dimensiones se correlacionaron la primacía del trabajo <italic>r</italic> =.191, <italic>p</italic>&lt;.05 y control de emociones <italic>r</italic> = -.216, <italic>p</italic>&lt;.05 con el autocuidado. La autoeficacia se correlacionó con las dimensiones del poder sobre la mujer <italic>r</italic> = -.188, <italic>p</italic>&lt;.05 y el control de emociones <italic>r</italic> = -.243, <italic>p</italic>&lt;.01, resultados no mostrados en tabla.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Tabla 2.</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Características de la muestra y de las variables de estudio</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt2.png"/>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN1">
							<p><italic>Nota: n</italic>=126</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t3">
					<label>Tabla 3.</label>
					<caption>
						<title><italic>Correlación de las variables de estudio</italic></title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt3.png"/>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p><italic>Nota</italic>: 1. Edad, 2. Escolaridad, 3. Años dx de diabetes, 4. No. Familiares, 5. IMC, 6. Machismo, 7. Apoyo familiar, 8. No apoyo familiar, 9. Percepción del estado de salud, 10. Autoeficacia en la diabetes y 11. Actividades de autocuidado. *p&lt;.05, **p&lt;.01</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p>Modelo de regresión lineal múltiple (backward) para autocuidado</p>
			<p>El modelo se de regresión múltiple se alimentó de variables independientes (edad, escolaridad, años con DMT2, No de familiares, IMC, percepción edo. Salud, apoyo y no apoyo familiar, autoeficacia y dimensiones del machismo) y el AC como variable dependiente. La técnica Backward creó 15 modelos; en el modelo inicial cobraron significancia seis variables independientes. El modelo final mostró significancia en tres sub-escals de machismo y los dos aspectos del apoyo familiar, explicando el 30.5% de la varianza <italic>F</italic> (6, 119)= 10.14, <italic>p</italic>&lt;.001, ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabla 4</xref>
			</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t4">
					<label>Tabla 4.</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Modelo de regresión lineal múltiple (Backward) para el autocuidado en DMT2</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt4.png"/>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN3">
							<p><italic>Nota: n</italic>=126, *<italic>p</italic>&lt;.05, **<italic>p</italic>&lt;.001. <italic>R</italic>
 <sup>
 <italic>2</italic>
</sup> 
 <italic>a</italic> = R cuadrada ajustada. X = Variable eliminada</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
			<p><bold>Análisis de mediación de la autoeficacia</bold></p>
			<p>En la primera etapa, el control de emociones, el apoyo familiar y la percepción del estado de salud se relacionaron de manera significativa con el autocuidado (c). En la segunda etapa, el control de emociones, el apoyo familiar y la percepción del estado de salud se relacionaron de manera significativa con la autoeficacia (a). En la tercera etapa, la autoeficacia se relacionó de manera significativa con el autocuidado (b). En la última etapa, cuando se integra la autoeficacia al modelo de apoyo familiar y percepción del estado de salud el tamaño de efecto disminuye. Para el caso del control de emociones también disminuye su efecto y se muestra no significativa, ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabla 5</xref>.</p>
			<p>
				<table-wrap id="t5">
					<label>Tabla 5.</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Análisis de Mediación de autoeficacia</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt5.png"/>
				</table-wrap>
			</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="discussion">
			<title>DISCUSIÓN</title>
			<p>El propósito del estudio fue determinar el efecto de las variables machismo, conductas familiares, la percepción del estado de salud, autoeficacia y variables socio-demográficas en las actividades de autocuidado en DMT2 en adultos del sexo masculino; el machismo se consideró como la primera aproximación en el manejo de una enfermedad crónico-degenerativa.</p>
			<p>La muestra estudiada se caracterizó por ser relativamente joven y consecuentemente con pocos años de haber sido diagnosticados con la enfermedad. Clínicamente la mayoría de los participantes cursaban con sobrepeso y obesidad e hipertensión, lo que constituye un riesgo para el desarrollo de enfermedades CV que se presentan en un alto porcentaje de quienes padecen DMT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Agregado a esta situación, practican poco el autocuidado de su enfermedad, aunque se consideran que tienen capacidades para cuidarse. Esta situación es muy frecuente encontrarla, tanto en hombres como en mujeres, lo que sugiere una posible sobre-estimación de lo que puede hacer por sí mismo, pero falta de voluntad o recursos para hacerlo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> Algunos estudios han reportado que los hombres con DMT2 no le ven beneficio a su tratamiento, por lo que no realizan las actividades de autocuidado, incluso que en eventos sociales oculten su diagnóstico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Dentro de los valores que tomaron las variables llama la atención el bajo promedio del "machismo", contradiciendo hasta cierto punto el concepto manejado hasta hace algunos años "los hombres mexicanos son machistas"<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>; las investigaciones señalan que el machismo se ha modificado por los cambios políticos y económicos que han moldeado los roles de hombre-mujer en la sociedad actual, donde un porcentaje importante de amas de casa contribuyen a la economía del hogar, con el producto de su trabajo. Esto puede influir en la postura del hombre “macho” llevándole a disminuir conductas asociadas e este modelo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>La correlación bivariada mostró que una baja escolaridad corresponde con mayores niveles de conductas machistas; dentro de estas conductas, el control de emociones se relacionó negativamente con el AC en DMT2. Estos datos sugieren que la educación es un factor que puede modificar la cultura, entendida como el medio de vida donde las personas desarrollan formas de comportamiento esperadas por quienes le rodean. Específicamente la educación en salud podría ser el mecanismo por el cual se incrementara el autocuidado de los hombres en padecimientos crónicos como la DMT2 y la misma obesidad.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Para hombres maduros, como es el caso de la muestra estudiada, el control de emociones parece afectar el desarrollo de acciones de AC en diabetes; esta relación sugiere que en el fondo de la conciencia masculina, el machismo sigue imperando ya que la sociedad les impone mayor control de emociones por ser hombres, llevándoles a descuido de su padecimiento. No tomar los medicamentos, no asistir a los controles médicos, no llevar la dieta y menos hacer ejercicio, son conductas muy frecuentes en adultos del sexo masculino que padecen DMT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Semejante relación se observó en “poder sobre la mujer y control de emociones” (dimensiones de la escala de machismo), con los niveles de auto-eficacia; cuanto más poder ejerce el hombre sobre la mujer y más controle sus emociones, menor nivel de autoeficacia percibida y si es el caso, menor nivel de acciones de AC.</p>
			<p>En el modelo predictor para el autocuidado, la autoeficacia y las conductas de apoyo familiar influyeron de manera positiva en el autocuidado, resultados que ya han sido reportados por otros investigadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> Mientras que las sub-escalas del machismo presentaron diferentes relaciones; por una parte la primacía por el trabajo y ser independientes se relacionaron de manera positiva al autocuidado. Los resultados obtenidos son contrarios a lo reportado en otros estudios en relación al trabajo. Los cuales reportar que el trabajo es señalado como una barrera para el autocuidado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Esto podría deberse a que el hombre para mantener su posición en la familia y su rol de proveedor reconoce la importancia de cuidarse para mantener su empleo, siendo esta actividad la más importante en la edad adulta. Por otro lado, los hombres que respondieron estar de acuerdo con la violencia, mostraron bajos niveles de autocuidado. Esto podría explicarse por lo que Figueroa-Perea<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> señala, que la construcción de la imagen masculina se compone de la violencia corporal como soportar el dolor y negar malestares físicos, forma de mostrar su fortaleza. Por lo que realizar acciones de cuidado para sí mismo, es visto como no propio del hombre. </p>
			<p>En este estudio, se evaluó la autoeficacia como variable mediadora entre el apoyo familiar, la percepción del estado de salud, control de emociones (dimensión de la escala del machismo) y el autocuidado. Los resultados mostraron un efecto mediador moderado, donde la relación entre un buen estado de salud percibido con el AC, se disminuyó al incluir autoeficacia en el cuidado de la DMT2, la relación entre el estado de salud y el nivel de AC se debilito por la mediación de la autoeficacia. El mismo efecto se observó con el apoyo familiar y control de emociones. Esto indica que la autoeficacia ejerce un efecto mayor sobre el AC, que las variables correspondientes a los FCBs, lo que es congruente con los planteamientos de la teorista y lo reportado por otros investigadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref>
			</p>
			<p>Limitaciones del estudio.</p>
			<p>Los resultados deben tomarse con precaución por dos aspectos fundamentales: La escala sobre Machismo fue desarrollada para población diferente a la de México, por lo que habría que confirmar su validez en el contexto de la población del noreste de México el sexo masculino. En segundo lugar, la muestra fue intencional y bastante homogénea en cuanto a variables como los años de educación que se sabe afecta la comprensión del constructo. Así mismo, no se midió el control glucémico en los participantes, por lo que se desconoce si las acciones de AC se reflejaban en el mismo.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONCLUSIONES</title>
			<p>En conclusión, el 30.5 % de la variación explicada del AC en hombres adultos con DMT2 se relacionó con la autoeficacia, el apoyo familiar y tres de las once dimensiones de la escala que mide el machismo. Esta explicación es modesta, pero debe considerarse también que los niveles de AC son muy bajos. </p>
			<p>En segundo lugar, se encontró un papel mediador importante de la autoeficacia, la que directamente se relaciona con el AC, de tres de las variables que generalmente se reportan relacionado con buenos niveles de AC; esta mediación confirma la fortaleza de la autoeficacia en la ejecución de acciones de cuidado a la salud.</p>
			<p>Implicaciones para futuras investigaciones</p>
			<p>Se sugiere futuros estudios realicen más investigaciones en esta población utilizando un muestreo probabilístico, además del desarrollo de programas donde involucren a la familia y se mejore la autoeficacia de los individuos con DMT2. De igual manera, realizar programas para concientizar a los hombres sobre su cuidado.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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	<!--sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Self-care of man with type 2 diabetes mellitus: impact of machismo</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<abstract>
				<title>ABSTRACT:</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Objective </title>
					<p>To determine if machismo, family support, health perception and self-efficacy influence in the self-care activities of the man with type 2 diabetes mellitus.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Methodology </title>
					<p>The design of the study was correlational descriptive, with a sample of 14 primary attention centers.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Results </title>
					<p>Machismo correlated negatively with family support and self-efficacy. While self-care was explained the 30.5% of the variance, the predictor variables were the family conducts, the self-efficacy, the sub-scales of machismo, work supremacy, being independent and violent.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Conclusions</title>
					<p> Machismo may influence directly to self-care and indirectly, through family support and self-efficacy</p>
				</sec>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>Diabetes mellitus type 2</kwd>
				<kwd>machismo</kwd>
				<kwd>family support</kwd>
				<kwd>self-efficacy</kwd>
				<kwd>self-care</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Diabetes mellitus is considered the XXI century pandemic, causing high hospitalization and premature death rates.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> In Mexico the type 2 mellitus diabetes prevalence (T2DM) has increased from 4.6% to 9.2% from the year 2000 to 2012<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>, currently occupying the second place in mortality in adults<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref>, nationally.</p>
				<p> Men with T2DM, in comparison with women, present micro and macro vascular complications, with higher frequency the ones that are associated to a low adhesion to the treatment, what generally results in hyperglycemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref>. Diverse studies report that male adults diagnosed with T2DM, confront the illness with higher laxity than women, they barely use the health services and don’t perceive the benefits of self-caring. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> A possible explanation is that the men’s character is product of the social circumstances; the man has been taught to be strong, to not express emotions or fears that take him to behave as a weak being; they try not to get sick and feeling well, so they don’t go find medical attention. To this group of behaviors, attitudes and values are known as “machismo”. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>In Mexico, “machismo” makes men to take risk behaviors that direct them to the loss of health<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref>, reason why it is considered that masculinity expressed as “machismo” is a factor that can limit actions of caring to their health when they suffer from T2DM. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> If men get sick it’s the family, mainly the wife, who performs the role of carer, supporting them in the medical treatment, which implies modifications in their lifestyle. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>)</sup> However, family care is insufficient to achieve an appropriate attachment to the medical recommendations given to the adult man to control his illness; the self-care is the behavior by excellence that would take these patients to manage the chronical illness with better results in the metabolic/glycemic control. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref>
				</p>
				<p>The current study framed the problem of disregard to the T2DM treatment by male adults in Orem’s Theory of Self-care Deficit <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref>, where the theorist stablishes that self-care is a regulatory function that individuals do to achieve and keep the optimal conditions associated with life, the functioning and development. In context with the theory, it is understood that when they get sick, the individuals should learn new ways to take care of themselves, so they need to develop specialized capacities (CAC) that sustain and mediate the self-care actions (AAC) that take them to recover their health or to maintain it in the best state possible. Both AAC and CAC are influenced positively or/and negatively by internal or external factors to the individuals who this theorist denominates basic determining factors (FCBs). These concepts relate each other (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
				<p>The global purpose of the research reported here was twofold: a) To determine if machismo, family support, health perception and self-efficacy influence predict the self-care actions; and b) To evaluate the mediator’s role of the self-efficacy in the prediction of the self-care actions, in male adults diagnosed with T2DM under ambulatory treatment.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="materials|methods">
				<title>MATERIAL AND METHODS</title>
				<p>The design was descriptive, transversal and correlational. The population of interest were adult men diagnosed with T2DM according with criteria of the ADA <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>; it was calculated a sample of 126 participants, with a significance level of .05, potency of 90% and size of effect of 0.14%. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> The sampling was not probabilistic. The recruitment was done in 14 Health Centers of the municipality of Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. The study was approved the Ethics Commission of the FAEN-UANL with registry FAEN-M-1099.</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f3">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Relation of concepts of self-care theory, deduced concepts and empirical indicators (variables)</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gf3.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Inclusion Criteria: At least six months after being diagnosed with T2DM, which it was verified with the record in the health centers; age from 20 to 59 years old, and cohabit with at least one family member, the information was obtained according to answered question.</p>
				<p>The participants’ recruitment was done in two forms: a) from the assistants to a programmed consultation for the T2DM control on each health center, we approached them in the waiting room before they were called by their medic; b) The patients, which data was available in the Health Center’s registry, were visited in their homes. In the first contact with the participants, we explained them the study and what did their participation consist if they agreed to be part of the study; if they answered positively, the informed consent was read for them, asking them to sign it and asked their relative who accompanied them to sign it too, as a witness. If the patient had a free time in that first meeting, the questionnaires were applied and the Somatometry was practiced. If the participant wasn’t available, an appointment was stablished in the same health center for the Somatometry, and in their home for the filling of the instruments. The survey data collection was done from February to May, 2014.</p>
				<p>Measurements</p>
				<p>The measurements consisted in the implementation of paper and pencil instrument (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 1</xref>) and of height and weight measurements with which the BMI was calculated with the Quetelet formula; although, the blood pressure was measured following the standardized procedure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> In the socio-demographic data document, it was registered the age of the participants, education level, number or relatives living together, years with diabetes, blood pressure and BMI.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t6">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Description of measurement instruments for the study’s variables.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="justify">Instrument</th>
									<th align="justify">Variables that measures</th>
									<th align="justify">N° and type of reactive/scale of answer</th>
									<th align="justify">Specifications</th>
									<th align="justify">Reliability-Scores and interpretation</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Summary of Diabetes Self-care activities (SDSCA)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref>
									</td>
									<td align="justify">Self-care actions</td>
									<td align="justify">14 reactive Scale 0-7</td>
									<td align="justify">Measures frequency of activities 7 days previous to the interview</td>
									<td align="justify">Cronbach’s Alpha 0.78 Score 0-98 Higher scores indicate higher self-care</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Scale of self-efficacy in T2DM management<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref>
									</td>
									<td align="justify">Self-efficacy in T2DM</td>
									<td align="justify">20 reactive Likert-like scale 1-5 </td>
									<td align="justify">Evaluates the abilities to accomplish with diet, self-monitory of glucose, revision of feet, physical exercise and weight, and medical treatment</td>
									<td align="justify">Cronbach’s Alpha 0.91 Score 20-100 Higher scores indicate higher self-efficacy</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">List of family’s behaviors to Type 2 diabetes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref>
									</td>
									<td align="justify">Family support or not family support in T2DM</td>
									<td align="justify">16 reactive Likert-like scale 1-5</td>
									<td align="justify">Evaluates the perceptions of support and no support behaviors on diabetes in diet, self-monitory of glucose, taking medications and exercise</td>
									<td align="justify">Cronbach’s Alpha 0.89 Average 1-5 The sub-scales are evaluated by separate. In support, the higher average indicates higher family support In no support, the higher average indicates no family support</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Questionnaire of general health SF12V2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref>
									</td>
									<td align="justify">Status perception of health</td>
									<td align="justify">12 reactive Likert-like scale 1-3 (If it limits me a lot-It does not limit me at all) and 1-5 (Always-Never)</td>
									<td align="justify">Evaluates eight fields: Physical functioning, body pain, general health, vitality, social function, emotional role, and mental health</td>
									<td align="justify">Cronbach’s Alpha 0.90 Score 0-100 Higher scores means better health status</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="left">Conformity inventory of masculine norms <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref>
									</td>
									<td align="justify">Machismo</td>
									<td align="justify">22 reactive Likert-like scale 0-3 Completely disagree-Completely agree</td>
									<td align="justify">Measures 11 dimensions: Possession, emotional control, homophobia, womanizer, power over women, search of status, risks taking, independence, violence, winning, and job primacy </td>
									<td align="justify">Cronbach’s Alpha 0.69 Score 0-66 Higher scores means higher machismo</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Statistical Analysis</p>
				<p>For the data analysis, it was used the statistical program “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” (SPSS) 17.0 version for Windows. We used the descriptive and inferential statistics. We determined frequencies and percentages for the categorical variables, and for the continuous variables we obtained central tendencies measurements (median) and dispersion (standard deviation) for the description of the study’s variables. In an exploratory way, we applied the Spearman’s co-relation in the study’s variable. For the objective one, to determine the predictive power of the selected variables over the Cronbach’s Alpha (CA), a model of regression was adjusted with the Backward technique.</p>
				<p>To evaluate the self-efficacy mediator’s role, we followed what was pointed out by Baron and Kenny. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Under this model we stablished the self-efficacy’s mediation between Perception of health status, social support and Machismo sub-scale “Emotions control” (FCBs) and self-care. Each one of these variables was related with the CA (first relation); as well as with the self-efficacy variable (second relation). In a third stage, three regression models were ran, where the predictor variable on each one of them was: health status, social support, and emotions control; the mediatory was self-efficacy; and the result was the CA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f4">
						<label>Figure 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Model of self-efficacy mediation in T2DM</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gf4.png"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>RESULTS</title>
				<p>Characteristics of the participants and study’s variables</p>
				<p>As we can see in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Table 2</xref>, the final sample was of 126 participants, with an average age of 49.3 years old (DE = 7.05), schooling of 8.3 years (DE= 3.1) and relatives living together of 3.2 (DE= 1.6). Clinically are characterized by having and average of 7.6 years (DE= 4.9) after being diagnosed; 47.6% of them have overweight, 27.8% with obesity and 30% presented hypertension (&gt;140/90) at the moment of the measurement. Besides, the average scores obtained in the scales are reported.</p>
				<p>Correlations with the study’s variables</p>
				<p>Before the inferential analysis, the normality in continuous variables was verified under the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test with the Lilliefors’ correction; the results showed that only the BMI presented normality. In the bi-varied analysis, machismo was correlated negatively with schooling, family support and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was correlated negatively with the number of relatives and positively with family support, the perception of health status and self-efficacy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Table 3</xref>). By introducing the variable of machismo by dimensions, they correlated the primacy of work r=.191, p&lt;.05, and with the dimensions of the power over women r=-.188, p&lt;.05, and the emotions control r=-.249, p&lt;.01, results are not shown in the table.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t7">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Characteristics of the sample and the study’s variables</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt7.png"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN4">
								<p><italic>Note: n=126</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t8">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title><italic>Correlation with the study’s variables</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt8.png"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN5">
								<p><italic>Note: 1. Ager, 2. Schooling, 3. Years with diabetes, 4. N° of relatives, 5. BMI, 6. Machismo, 7. Family support, 8. No family support, 9. Perception of Health status, 10. Self-efficacy in diabetes and 11. Self-care activities</italic> *p&lt;.05, **p&lt;.01</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Model of multiple linear regression (backward) for self-care</p>
				<p>The model of multiple regression was provided of independent variables (age, schooling, years with T2DM, N° of relatives, BMI, perception of health status, family support or no family support, self-efficacy, and dimensions of machismo) and the CA as a dependent variable. The “backward” technique created 15 models; in the initial model, six independent variables had significance. The final model showed significance in three sub-scaled of machismo and the two aspects of family support, explaining the 30.5% of the variance F(6,119)=10.14, p&lt;.001, see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Table 4</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t9">
						<label>Table 4</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Model of multiple regression (Backward) for self-caring in T2DM</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt9.png"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN6">
								<p><italic>Note: n=126, *p&lt;.05, **p&lt;.001. R2a = R squared adjusted X= eliminated variable</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Mediation Analysis of Self-efficacy</p>
				<p>On the first stage, emotions control, family support, and perception of health status were significantly related to self-care (c). On the second stage, emotions control, family support, and perception of health status were significantly related to self-efficacy (a). On the third stage, self-efficacy was significantly related to self-care (b). On the last stage, when the self-efficacy integrates to the model of family support and perception of health status, the effect size decreases. For the case of emotions control, it also decreases its effect and shows no significant, see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Table 5</xref>.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t10">
						<label>Table 5</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Analysis of self-efficacy measurement</title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="1695-6141-eg-17-51-1-gt10.png"/>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN7">
								<p>Note: 126 participants</p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>DISCUSSION</title>
				<p>The study’s purpose was to determine the effect of the variables machismo, family behaviors, perception of health status, self-efficacy and socio-demographic variables in the self-care activities in T2DM on male adults; machismo was considered as the first approximation in the management of a chronical-degenerative illness.</p>
				<p>The studied sample was characterized by being relatively young, and accordingly with few years after being diagnosed with the illness. Clinically the most of the participants endured with overweight and obesity, and hypertension, which constitutes a risk for the developing of CV illnesses that are presented in a high percentage of who suffer T2DM. <sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Added to this situation, they barely practice the self-caring of their illness, even though they consider that they have the capacities to take care of themselves. This situation is very usual to find, as much in men as in women, which a possible over-estimation of what they can do by themselves is suggested, but there’s a lack of resources or unwillingness to do it. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> Some of the studies have reported that men with T2DM do not see a benefit to the treatment, therefore they do not do the self-caring activities, even that in social events they hide their diagnosis. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>
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				<p>In the values that the variables took, the low average of “machismo” grabbed our attention, contradicting to a certain moment, the concept used until some years ago: “Mexican men are sexists” <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>; the investigations point out that machismo has been modified by the political and economic changes that have molded the roles of man-woman in the current society, where an important percentage of housewives contributes the home’s economy with the product of their job. This may influence in the stance of the “macho”, taking him to decrease associated behaviors in this model. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>
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				<p>The bi-variated correlation showed that a low schooling corresponds with higher levels of sexist behaviors; in these behaviors, emotions control was negatively related with the CA in T2DM. These data suggest that education is a factor that can modify culture, understood as the way of life that develops forms of behavior expected by the people who surround them. Specifically, education in health may be the mechanism by which self-care in men increased in chronical illnesses as T2DM and obesity, as well. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>
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				<p>For adult males, as it’s the case of the studied sample, emotions control seemed to affect the action’s developing of CA in diabetes; this relation suggests that deeply inside of the male’s conscience, machismo keeps prevailing since societies imposes a higher emotions control by being men, taking them to neglect their illness. Not taking medication, not assisting to the medical controls, not following the diet, and not exercising are very common behaviors in male adults who endure with T2DM. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> A same relation was observed in “power over women and emotions control” (dimensions of the machismo scale), with self-efficacy levels; the more power the man has over women and more controls his emotions, a lower level of self-efficacy is perceived, and if it is the case, a lover level in actions of CA.</p>
				<p>In the predictor model for self-caring, self-efficacy, and family support behaviors, influenced positively in self-caring, results that have already been reported by other researches. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> While the sub-scales of machismo presented different relations; by one side, the primacy of work and being independent were positively related to self-caring. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> The obtained results are the opposite to what was reported in other studies related to work, which report that work is pointed out as a barrier for self-caring. This could be due to that man, to keep their position in the family and the role as a breadwinner recognizes the importance of taking care of his health to keep his job, being this activity the most important in adulthood. In the other side, men who answered that were agree with violence, showed lower levels of self-caring. This could be explained by what Figueroa-Perea <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> pointed out, that the construction of the masculine image is composed by the corporal violence as: enduring the pain and negate physical ailment, as a way to show their strength. So that making self-caring actions it is seen as something inappropriate for a man.</p>
				<p>In this study, self-efficacy was evaluated as a mediatory variable between family support, perception of health status, emotions control (dimension of the scale of machismo) and self-caring. The results showed a moderated mediatory effect, where the relation between a good health status perceived with the CA, decreased when the self-efficacy in caring of T2DM was included, the relation between health status and the level of CA was weakened by the mediation of self-efficacy. The same effect was observed with family support and emotions control. This means that self-efficacy performs a higher effect over the CA than the corresponding variables to the FCBs, which it is congruent with the statements of the theorist and what was reported by other researchers. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>)(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref>
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				<p>Study limitations</p>
				<p>The results should be taken with precaution by two fundamental aspects: The scale about Machismo was developed for a different population from Mexico, so its validity should be confirmed in the context of the Mexico’s northwest adult male population. Secondly, the sample was intentional and homogeneous regarding to variables as in the years of education that, it is known, affect the comprehension of the construct. Likewise, the glycemic control wasn’t measured in the participants, so that it is unknown if the CA actions were reflected in it.</p>
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				<title>CONCLUSIONS</title>
				<p>In conclusion, the 30.5% of the explained variation of the AC in adult men with T2DM related with self-efficacy, family support, and three of the eleven dimensions of the scale that measures machismo. This explanation is modest, but should be also considered that the levels of CA are too low.</p>
				<p>In second place, an important mediator role of self-efficacy was found, the one that directly relates with the CA, of three variables that generally are reported related with good levels of CA; this measurement confirms the strength of self-efficacy in the execution of actions of health care.</p>
				<p>Implications for future research</p>
				<p>It is suggested that future studies do more research in this population using a probabilistic sampling, as well as the developing of programs where they involve the family and improve the self-efficacy of the individuals with T2DM. Similarly, make programs to raise awareness to men about their health.</p>
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