Models for the pedagogical integration of information and communication technologies: a literature review

Modelos para a integração pedagógica de tecnologias de informação e comunicação: uma revisão da literatura.

Modelos para la integración pedagógica de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación: una revisión de la literatura

It cannot be denied that the education system of the 21st century requires profound changes to respond to society’s needs, particularly those related to social and economic changes. Therefore, new “skills and competencies required by the educational standards that each student must be able to achieve by the end of compulsory education” must be developed (INTERGUAYAMA, 2010, p. 3).

For this reason, leaders in education from international organizations have come together to formulate a global framework enabling countries to face the challenges of the information society. An example of this was the World Summit on the Information Society (Geneva, 2003; Tunis, 2005) convened by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which defined goals that can be adapted to the plans and policies of each nation. These goals are meant to guarantee equal opportunities and quality education that responds to the needs of all students, where lifelong learning and diversified teaching of information and communication technology applications in social and economic fields are promoted for improving learning processes and developing student competences (BETANCOURT, 2004; DECLARATION OF INCHEON, 2015; UIT, 2005).

To meet these demands, numerous investigations have been conducted around the world describing experiments with technology integration in specific contexts. Although many studies have reported successful results with regard to the use of technology to improve students’ motivation and learning, there seems to be a disconnection in the holistic reflections regarding visions for the type of person to be shaped, the curriculum, the pedagogy, the types of relationships of the actors involved, and the evaluation of learning that characterizes each educational institution. In this regard, Fernandes et al. (2016), highlight the importance of school management to promote the organization, mobilization and articulation of material and human conditions to ensure the effective progress of educational processes.

Some research (BADILLA QUINTANA; MEZA FERNÁNDEZ, 2015) has focused on producing scenarios in which teachers can create learning situations that simulate training experiences for students. These experiences are encompassed in the implementation of virtual environments for collaborative work and social networks where interaction is valued.

Other research has adhered to the Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model to improve performance of teaching and learning processes in specific areas (SAMPAIO, 2016; TAI et al., 2015). These studies report positive results when the model is used mainly for learning organized writing as well as in the absorption of content. Others have focused on investigating the reasons why teachers integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into their classes. Results reveal that the use of these technologies is directly proportional to the teacher’s mastery of them as well as to resources availability, to how much they motivate students and to the use of constructivist methods in teaching/learning processes (PETKO, 2012).

Teachers’ perception of the integration of technologies, the competencies they possess and their relationship are public policies that have also been subject of research. An example is the study carried out by Herrera et al. (2018), who conclude that perceptions and experience of teachers are fundamental factors for the educational integration of ICTs and that there is not necessarily a relationship between their learning and the requirements of the regulations.

Along these same lines of teacher beliefs, the studies report that teachers seldom use multimedia resources like YouTube videos, since they believe that these media are only used for fun and for motivating activities, and do not require much effort by students in terms of processing information (KRAUSKOPF et al., 2012).

Other studies have focused on the use of an electronic portfolio for the development of cognitive skills in b-learning environments. They conclude that the use of these portfolios, together with problem-based learning models, helps develop problem-solving skills and critical thinking, since they allow students to create, synthesise and systematise conclusions (KORANEEKIJ; KHLAISANG, 2015)

In another vein, some researchers have studied the influence of connectivity as a model for training industrial design students, finding positive results related to the creation of learning networks through online courses and other technology tools such as wikis, blogs, and 3D printing, all of which contributed to the absorption of knowledge and student creativity (RENDA; KUYS, 2015). Other studies have focused on collaborative work to create scenarios where future teachers face situations in which they can simulate the decisions required in teaching students.

Finally, although there are initiatives to create models and experiences for training students and teachers that incorporate technology, educational institutions must review and adjust the strategies implemented by first analysing aspects such as the vision for the type of person that they want to shape, the curriculum, the pedagogy, the types of relationship between the actors involved and the evaluation of learning. Results should provide a clear vision for addressing the pedagogical strategies that promote lifelong learning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be.

Therefore, if the integration of technology is indispensable for the 21st century education, then it is imperative for the pedagogical models of educational institutions to adapt to this need. This article intends to present a bibliographic review of the elements that should be considered in the integration of ICT into education in order to understand how they relate to current pedagogical models and to identify areas for future research.

The methodology for the literature review was systematic, taking into account the stages illustrated in the Graph 1, adapted from the Okoli and Schabram’s (2010) approach.

Graph 1
Review method
Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

2.2 Initial search criteria

Electronic searches were conducted in educational databases such as Scopus, Jstor and ProQuest. In addition, different combinations of keywords were used, such as “ICT integration models”, “ICT and teaching”, and “ICT and learning”. Based on these search criteria, a total of 3,397 high-quality studies published from 1994 through the first quarter of 2017 were found.

To further refine the results, a search filter using keyword combinations was applied. Furthermore, from the resulting 644 publications, only 20% of the articles were selected as shown in the Table 1.

Table 1
Articles published by year

Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

2.3 Selection of articles and reading

Once the potential articles were identified, a preliminary reading was carried out to verify that they met the following criteria:

• Studies related to practices that incorporate ICT for teaching or learning

• Studies that consider strategies for incorporating ICT into teaching at any level of education

• Studies including at least one element related to the definition of the pedagogical model

Finally, the first 100 articles that met the selection criteria were chosen. The Graph 2 shows them organized by year:

Graph 2
Documents publishing and selecting per year
Source: Prepared by the author based on Scopus, ProQuest, Jstor (2017).

All the selected articles describe strategies for incorporating information and communication technologies into teaching or learning. Of these, 57% report on the results of projects in basic and secondary education and 10% in higher education, and 33% correspond to teacher training studies.

The countries of origin of these articles are shown in Graph 3. The country with the largest number of publications in this area is Spain, with 11% of the total. The United States, the United Kingdom and Malaysia each account for 10% of the total, followed by Australia with 9%. Chile, Greece, India, Belgium, Canada and Turkey each represent 4% of the total, while Portugal and Taiwan each account for 3%. Germany, France, Kenya, Nigeria, and Serbia each constitute 2% of the total. Other countries accounting for only 1% each of the total are China, Austria, Brazil, Colombia, Estonia, Finland, Iran, Italy, Morocco, Norway, New Zealand, the Czech Republic, Romania and Sweden.

Graph 3
Documents selects country
Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

It is relevant to approach the five questions that define a pedagogical model, illustrated in Graph 4. Of the articles reviewed, it was found that 28% only address one of the questions, 35% address two questions, 26% address three questions, and 11% address four questions. None of the articles addresses all five questions.

Graph 4
Strategies of ICT integration reported
Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

Furthermore, 58% of the selected articles establish a relationship between the strategy and a foundational educational model, while 25% associate the study with a theory of learning. Only 17% of the articles mention both, while 34% make no mention of either.

The following is a synthesis of the findings identified in the approaches for incorporating technology into educational practices and possible relationships with a pedagogical model, based on the five questions that define it (COLL, 1991).

4.1 Educational models for the integration of ICT and related pedagogical theories

In order to provide a conceptual framework to understand how teachers integrate ICT into teaching and learning processes, 17% of the studies reviewed use the TPACK model developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006) (some are shown in Table 2). Murthy et al. (2015) and Warriem et al. (2014) build on this knowledge base with the A2I model (Attain-Align-Integrate). Similarly, the teacher’s role in process innovation is analysed via the K20 model (WILLIAMS et al., 2008), the Teaching Development Programme model (TDP) (ALBION et al., 2015), the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) (KARMESHU et al., 2013; PEARSON, 2015), and the Technology Acceptance model (ALRESHEED et al., 2015). Regarding the study of the dynamic relationships between learning agents and ICT, Toh (2016), Zagami (2013) and Lin (2011) used the ecological model as a reference point.

Table 2
Studies based on the TPACK model and on the theory of diffusion

Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

Additionally, in order to understand the process of adopting educational innovations resulting from the incorporation of ICT, 7% of authors analyse the relationship between the perceived attributes of the innovations and their rate of adoption by applying the theory of diffusion (Table 2).

Moreover, the design of learning environments founded on strategies that involve technologies is based on instructional design models such as the KOLB model (EBISINE, 2015), the Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) model (HAMILTON et al., 2016; NKONKI; NTLABATHI, 2016), and the Learning Cycle model (YILDIZ; KOÇAK, 2016), which enable the active participation of students.

The learning strategies that are gaining strength are based on e-learning models (ALKOUDMANI, 2015; ARIF et al., 2015; DEBANDE, 2004) and the flipped model (KOSTARIS et al., 2017; CHEN; CHANG, 2017; GARCÍA-SÁNCHEZ; JOSE, 2017; KOSTARIS et al., 2017), from which the self-regulated learning model was born (CARNEIRO, 2006). Additionally, there are references on problem-based learning (ARATI et al., 2011; VIRKUS, 2008), Digital Game Based Learning (DGBL) (COUCEIRO et al., 2013; EMIN-MARTINEZ; NEY, 2013; LOCKLEY; BOYLE, 2014; MANESSIS, 2013;) and object-based education (RAJU et al., 2016).

Finally, the literature reports that theories of learning associated with the aforementioned models are based on the thought of Papert, Piaget and Vygotsky (DREHER et al., 2009). The premise is that the creation of knowledge and the acquisition of skills are active and interrelated processes, hence the relationship of ICT integration strategies with social constructivism. This strategy contribute to the collaborative and student-centred learning (COUCEIRO et al., 2013; GARCÍA-VALCÁRCEL et al., 2013; KOH; SING, 2011; KABICHER et al., 2009; MARTÍN; DE ARRIBA, 2017; MURTHY et al., 2015; PEINADO-MIGUEL et al., 2013; WANG, 2008).

The tendencies for each question about the pedagogical model, found in the literature are shown below:

4.3 When to teach?

The way in which the protagonists in the educational context are related determines when to teach or learn, hence the importance of clarifying the roles of the actors involved in this process.

In 90% of the literature reviewed that addresses the role of the teacher, it is stressed that the responsibility for planning or managing learning activities falls on teachers. Therefore, one could say that it is the teacher who decides when to teach or learn. It also points to the student as the centre of the educational process and stresses the need for students to assume active and highly self-directed roles in learning environments involving technology.

Table 3 presents some of the authors that explicitly address the roles of the teacher and the student.

Table 3
Literature that discusses the roles of teacher and student

Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

4.4 What to teach?

It was found in the literature that content developed in the context of the reported educational experiences was created from two perspectives: global curricula based on standard guidelines and structured by discipline, and flexible curricula based on core educational experiences and supported by mobile learning, digital content, the promotion of authentic learning and project-based assignments, among others. Some examples are presented in Table 4.

Table 4
Origins of curricular content

Source: Prepared by the author (2017).

Regarding curriculum design, Ham and Cha (2009) note that the categories used to define curricula are quite similar among different countries and stable over time, despite local idiosyncrasies such as economic conditions and socio-historical characteristics. Under these conditions, it is expected that a well-planned curriculum will lead to the comprehensive development of the student (EBISINE, 2015). An example of this is the spiral curriculum, characterized by an iterative process of content review (MURTHY et al., 2015; WARRIEM et al., 2014).

Nevertheless, there are those who advocate for a flexible curriculum that is adaptable to the interests of students (JIMÉNEZ et al., 2008; KABICHER et al., 2009; PEARSON, 2015; WILLIAMS et al., 2008). Thus promoting a vision that is not limited to the simple acquisition of basic knowledge (writing, reading, arithmetic, art, etc.), but also promotes learning experiences aimed at social skill development, problem solving, good work habits (self-sufficiency, responsibility, organization) and the capacity for reflection, critical thinking and initiative (EMIN-MARTINEZ; NEY, 2013; GARCÍA-VALCÁRCEL et al., 2013; SEGREDO et al., 2017).

Education and educational policies are linked to economic growth and the demands of society, and although changes happen slowly, in recent decades, the development of information and communication technologies has led the academic community to seek to transform schools and teaching strategies. Evidence of this can be found in the exponential growth in research studies related to the pedagogical integration of ICT.

The research design that dominates the literature reviewed in this study are case studies that further the understanding of the methodologies and strategies applied by some institutions to integrate technology into the educational process This phenomenon results in strategies that were successful during implementation, but in few cases are sustainable over time.

It is important that the studies carried out on this subject, in addition to holistically considering all sectors and educational actors, be accompanied by a reflection based on the classical theories of learning and emerging theories of learning in the digital era. This allows to deepen the understanding of the factors that affect the success of the changes that are introduced in the school that seek to generate processes of educational transformation. In this regard, models such as TPACK, A2I, K20, and TDP, among others, give theoretical elements to the pedagogical integration of ICT and contribute in the consolidation of the transformation of education. Similarly, a number of alternative teaching strategies for stimulating innovation are beginning to gain momentum: e-learning, the flipped model, problem-based learning aided by technology, and game-based learning.

A concurrence in the aims of education was discovered in the literature review, concerning the training of independent, creative and innovative citizens to enable them to continue developing throughout life. However, only some studies refer to education about values and to the development of ethical citizens; skills necessary to achieve an integral formation of students, so that they perform with sensitivity and capacity for critical reflection and understanding of the globalized world and adapt quickly to changes.

Regarding the teacher’s function, it continues to play a leading role in the process. Although the literature points to the student as the centre of the educational process, it is the teacher who decides what to teach, plans and designs the learning environments. To achieve a student-centred approach, a high level of student participation in the learning process is required, which implies that the teacher would have “low control”. The teacher’s role is therefore reduced to encouraging students to take the initiative to plan and complete learning activities. With a teacher-centred approach, the teacher prefers to assume responsibility for student performance by modelling learning activities and exemplifying a “high control” teaching behaviour (den Brok et al., 2004, referenced by Kale; Goh, 2014).

Regarding evaluation, the conclusions of studies that address this topic concur in favouring a formative, shared evaluation oriented towards improving learning and not only towards performance measurement of content domain. This is achieved through a process of verification, assessment and decision-making in order to optimize the teaching/learning process (Romero-Martín et al., 2017). In this process, ICT is a tool that allows the processing of large volumes of information from rubrics or portfolios and thus offers an immediate and timely feedback that allows clear information on the progress of students.

Finally, it is necessary to delve deeper into student-centred curricula, the evaluation of learning, learning assessment strategies, how to achieve education that is truly centred on the student, and the harmonization of emerging methodologies with traditional pedagogical approaches using current pedagogical principles. It is also important to investigate the mechanisms of participation of all educational actors in the formulation of strategies that allow changes to be made in order to achieve the training objectives.