The contribution also benefited from the discussions generated by the project "Swipe Like Love -Gender Perspectives on Digital Use and TikTok". The latter, developed as part of activities linked to the Memorandum of Understanding between CRID and OGEPO - the Interdepartmental Observatory on Gender Studies and Equal Opportunities (University of Salerno), with the undersigned (representing CRID) and Professor Valeria Giordano (representing OGEPO) as coordinators, aims to critically analyze the messages conveyed on TikTok, particularly the so-called "toxic relationships" spread by some content circulating on this platform.
In addition to Professor Valeria Giordano, I would like to thank Dr. Valeria Barone, Dr. Gianluca Gasparini, Dr. Marco Mondello, Dr. Claudia Severi, and Dr. Benedetta Rossi for the discussions on some key aspects of this contribution.
Special thanks are due to Dr. Casimiro Coniglione and Professor Barbara G. Bello, to whom I owe an important dialogue on the strictly legal aspects contained in the central part of the article.
The article analyzes TikTok from a holistic perspective, integrating legal, philosophical, sociological, and psychological views, with a focus on minors. From a legal perspective, it examines regulatory measures and court decisions aimed at protecting minors from harmful content. From a sociological point of view, it explores the role of "prosumers" in a "convergent culture", where users create and consume content, shaping social dynamics, as well as the influence of interactivity and personalization. From a psychological angle, it highlights the formation of mental habits in youth and the importance of user agency within the context of children's digital rights. Lastly, it advocates for strategies such as digital educational pacts to promote responsible use of TikTok.
El artículo analiza TikTok desde una perspectiva holística, integrando visiones legales, filosóficas, sociológicas y psicológicas, con un enfoque en los menores. Desde el punto de vista legal, examina las medidas regulatorias y las decisiones judiciales orientadas a proteger a los menores de contenido perjudicial. Desde una perspectiva sociológica, explora el papel de los "prosumidores" en una "cultura convergente", en la que los usuarios crean y consumen contenido, moldeando las dinámicas sociales, así como la influencia de la interactividad y la personalización. Desde el ángulo psicológico, destaca la formación de hábitos mentales en los jóvenes y la importancia de la agencia del usuario en el contexto de los derechos digitales de los niños. Finalmente, aboga por estrategias como los pactos educativos digitales para promover el uso responsable de TikTok.
SUMMARY: Introduction: A look at TikTok through the law. I. The "distinctive features" of TikTok. II. What regulation? Judicial interventions and actions by Authorities against TikTok. III. What awareness and what agency? A sociological perspective: prosumers, digital, encoded and convergent culture, interactivity, personalization. IV. Strategies for a conscious use of the platform: digital educational pacts and
TikTok is a digital environment accessed by millions of users worldwide, the vast majority of whom are minors and young people
What still seems to be lacking in this context is an investigation
This contribution primarily aims to thoroughly examine the distinctive features of this platform and its usage, also with the view to understanding the risks arising from the lack of awareness of younger users. From this standpoint, the initial discussion aligns with the perspective of the recently approved AI Act, which, as is well known, revolves around the concept of "risk"
The analysis - which is part of an effort to promote inclusive and equal
This provision, along with others that will be reviewed in the text and adopted in various parts of the world, demonstrates how TikTok today represents a space that, like other digital environments connected to the development of artificial intelligence, cannot escape
Some have even gone so far as to claim that this platform is
Beyond specific studies on certain geopolitical contexts that are increasingly emerging, the global spread of TikTok
Most importantly, it is necessary to ensure its conscious use, which allows for the prevention and mitigation of risks while also recognizing its potential, going beyond the restrictive and exclusive dimension of insecurity.
As has been aptly observed, the proliferation of social networks "not only allows for the flow of information and communications, but also gives rise to new forms of
Therefore, understanding the impact of platforms (in this case, TikTok) on these processes, as well as on the changing "mental habits", particularly of the younger generations, is not only a matter of the communication and information system on the Web, and thus of the realm of knowledge (and the powers of participation associated with it), but also of the legal experience and the role of law in relation to certain phenomena occurring on this platform.
The social network TikTok is a
It is an application primarily used by very young individuals under the age of eighteen worldwide, except - not by chance - in China, where a local
Both applications are Chinese, similar in their algorithms and in the strategic role they play
There are some differences between the platform in China and the rest of the world: in the former, the application seems to be more sophisticated, as it also integrates specific functions for Internet marketing
Unlike other social networks (Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, or Telegram), TikTok allows users to upload very short and extremely short videos
Moreover, the platform makes extensive use of "Artificial Intelligence" to analyze the interests and preferences expressed by the application's users in order to "personalize" their experiences and the content proposed to them
Sociological analyses (which will be discussed more extensively below) highlight the importance for the platform of the presence of young people from the so-called "Generation Z" - those born between 1997 and 2012 - and "Generation Alpha", i.e. those born between 2010 and 2020. These analyses follow the modalities of "targeting" and "user profiling" imposed by the logic of marketing, which is often intertwined with the spread of social networks.
For this reason, numerous controversies surround the app, with the risk of amplifying and consolidating various phenomena such as online hate, violence, and sexism
According to a reading of TikTok's policy, the dissemination and publication of content via the platform would be prohibited in the following areas: the sale of animals, tobacco, drugs, and weapons; pornographic material and nudity; gambling; fraud; copyrighted material; chemicals or, more generally, dangerous materials; funeral services; abortion services; terrorism, crime, threats, and violent content; harassment, bullying, and, indeed, incitement to hatred, including through discourse characterized by such.
Nevertheless, even indirectly, such content manages to circulate within this platform. It is no coincidence that various states have begun to issue measures against the platform, both through jurisprudence and via authorities. This has thus opened up a more specific issue of regulation.
As mentioned above, TikTok raises a number of legal issues that have led to decisive measures taken by states against the platform, including judicial actions.
The global popularity achieved by TikTok has required the platform to constantly negotiate with the rules, regulations, and legal frameworks of the regions in which it operates
The platform has been banned (either temporarily or permanently) for its content in several countries, including India, Indonesia, and Pakistan
Over time, its popularity among underage users has brought the platform under increasing scrutiny and criticism.
In Italy, for instance, on January 22, 2021, the Data Protection Authority mandated the suspension of the use of user data for which age verification had not been established
In this case, the relevant aspect on the juridical stage is that of the processing of data concerning minors
These are profiles that invoke the so-called
A second relevant case concerning Italy arose from another dangerous trend that went viral on social media, mainly in France: hence the term "French scar". The challenge consisted in violently squeezing the skin of the cheeks until bruises or "red marks" appeared on the cheekbones. Many psychologists have intervened to highlight the dangers of this trend, not only due to its effects on physical health - in some cases the bruises can last for several weeks, if not months - but especially due to the risks to mental health that such challenges may pose to adolescents.
The trend of this challenge peaked in the early months of winter 2023, and after a series of incidents, AGCM - the Antitrust Authority- has imposed to TikTok to remove the videos
Moving to another global context, in India, on April 3, 2019, the Madras High Court explicitly requested the Indian government to ban the TikTok application because, according to the Supreme Court
Nevertheless, on 29 June 2020, India's Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology decided to completely remove TikTok from Indian online stores following several armed clashes between Indian and Chinese forces in the Ladakh region, stating that the application - also regarded a weapon of "cognitive warfare" (a specification of so-called information warfare) - was considered a threat to national integrity and the protection of free Indian institutions.
In addition, the Indian government clarified that this decision - beyond its purely military nature, within the perspective of a "digital risk society" - was adopted to protect users' data and privacy. Concerns about the treatment of minors' data have also been raised by various European Data Protection Authorities.
In this regard, it is worth noting that in 2023 the Irish Data Protection Authority fined TikTok 345 million euros for breaching the rules regarding on the protection of minors' personal data, specifically the GDPR - General Data Protection Regulation
Particularly noteworthy is the recent decision of the Munich Court
Moreover, it should also be noted, in passing, that on September 5, 2023, the European Commission classified ByteDance (the holding company that owns TikTok) as a gatekeeper under Article 3 of the DSA Regulation, precisely because of the service offered by TikTok and its relevance in the market. This decision has been challenged by ByteDance: it will be necessary to wait for a definitive position, as currently, TikTok's precautionary requests have been rejected for lack of
The court recognized as proven the presence of the appellant's protected videos on the platform managed by TikTok, and that such presence constituted a public communication act under Directive 2019/790 and its implementation in Germany. According to the Court, TikTok should be held responsible for this act of public communication because the platform had not made any efforts to attempt to conclude a license with the rights holder.
From a purely sociological perspective, the platform belongs to the category of so-called
Since these are behaviors and mental habits subject to very relevant processes of change, it seems appropriate to focus on some key concepts that characterize the TikTok platform and its logics.
A first relevant concept, useful for understanding the logic of TikTok, is that of the
TikTok thrives on its contents, which - unlike traditional media - are not created by a single production "department", but by anyone who has the will and passion to do so. This results in the combination of consumer and producer: the
A second, by no means secondary, aspect is the "codified digital culture" that can be observed within the dense dynamics of TikTok.
Within the platform it is possible to witness - with various stimuli - the birth and establishment of different trends, linguistic or behavioral fashions, which are reflected in the analog interactions of consociates
The cultural product, or rather the cultural products (due to their vastness and variety), offered by TikTok through the algorithm that directs its functioning, is capable of making viral content that is then picked up by the masses
Closely related to this is a third concept, that of "convergent culture"
The final sociological considerations concern a fourth and fifth concept: that of "interactivity" and "personalization".
TikTok's algorithm follows a logic called
On TikTok, the words "interact" and "personalize" can be seen as synonyms.
"Interacting" with content within the platform means personalizing our own experience within the application, by sending information to the algorithm.
On the other hand, "personalizing content" means interacting with it in order to make it consistent with one's personal taste and communicative intentions.
Closely related to both of them is the concept of "consultation", in which the user indirectly poses a question to the platform through their interactions with the content, and the platform, via the algorithm, is responsible for providing a response consistent with the user's needs and desires. An
In the field of personalization, two other variables are included: that of time and space, as well as that of production. The so-called "peripheral consumer" is free to control the time and place of the content delivered in response to the request made to the platform. Personalising one's time and space within TikTok thus means consuming the content offered by the platform when and where they wish.
This can be both a positive and a negative aspect: on the one hand, one is autonomous in managing spaces and times, but on the other hand, no one can warn the user (starting with the adult) in case of content abuse or prevent the viewing of it, thus risking falling into a vortex of content addiction and negative emulation (as seen with the case of the challenge among users defined
There is a risk is that individuals belonging to the so-called "Generation Z"
The digitization process, with its numerous opportunities for interconnection and the pervasiveness of new devices, poses new and complex challenges in the educational field. Challenges that firstly schools and teachers, families and parents, but also the entire community and citizenship, are called upon to address.
What seems to be needed is the definition of shared goals: on the one hand, certain processes focus on the creation of pacts and alliances, of which the so-called "digital education pacts" are a significant example, and, on the other hand, the valorrization of positive uses of the platform within the framework of "digital citizenship".
The "digital educational pacts" are valuable tools in the direction of prevention and education, rather than a logic of control, prohibition, and sanction associated with what has been referred to in this context and in the introductory note to the Forum as the "risk paradigm".
What is needed is the definition of shared goals, and in this context, the so-called "digital educational pacts" represent valuable tools
The digital educational pact can be understood as a "pact of co-responsibility" for digital education, starting with the family and opening to cooperation with other stakeholders involved in the digital education of minors.
Digital education is not limited to the management of individual family choices: experience shows that the community (schools, local authorities, and the world of associations) can join with individual families to form a collective alliance, outlining the best strategies for the digital education of children.
In fact, when children receive inconsistent messages from the adult world, they are - fundamentally - disoriented. This 'disorientation' can lead to wrong choices in online navigation. Conversely, a strong community alliance
A digital educational pact contains the fundamental principles of these shared choices, ensuring that families, local authorities, and the world of associations commit to the proper use of new technologies by children and teenagers, so as to guarantee their psycho-physical well-being
On these premises, the following programmatic guidelines for a digital educational pact can be outlined:
- Any "technophobic" vision on the part of parents must be overcome, but the transition from analog to digital must be gradual;
- Preparing the child's digital autonomy in advance, starting with shared use of devices, and gradually giving independence to the minor, who can then begin to exercise what we have defined as
- Establishing clear and transparent rules for the use of the devices from the outset;
- Families are adequately informed about the use of the device by the minor and, in a sense, take greater responsibility through the pact, which involves other families, institutions, and the world of associations.
Digital educational pacts are undoubtedly an important opportunity, as they allow synergy between families, schools, local authorities, and the world of associations, establishing clear but never oppressive rules for children and this can accompany their introduction to platforms such as TikTok and gradually guide them in
This approach permits to enhance the positive potential of new technologies without being consumed by the frantic race toward digitalization, on the one hand, and without falling into the negative circuits of new technologies - such as viewing inappropriate content for minors or operating in an 'inappropriate' online environment - on the other.
The undoubted advantage of a digital educational pact, in addition to the creation of shared principles and rules, is its
The primary goal is the psycho-physical well-being of children (and the full protection of their rights), so that they can gain awareness and maturity in the use of devices, without rushing the physiological process of growth and maturation when interacting with online content and, at the same time, learn how to practice digital skills.
This type of path seems to be very well linked to the practices of discovery and sharing practices at various levels that platforms in general and TikTok in particular can make possible
That this happens even in a space
Este artículo forma parte de la sección "Forum" del n.° 48 de la
This contribution was developed as part of the project '"TikTok and Beyond: Best Practices for a Safe Digital Citizenship in the Era of Social Networks", promoted by the CRID - Interdepartmental Research Center on Discrimination and Vulnerability at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (
In terms of statistics released in 2024, TikTok - which is available in 155 countries and 75 different languages - had 1.5 billion daily users in 2023, an increase of 16% compared to the previous year. As of January 6, 2024, TikTok has been downloaded 4.1 billion times and is currently the sixth most popular social media platform globally (preceded by Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, WeChat, and Douyin). In terms of gender demographics, TikTok is one of the platforms where women make up the majority of users (57% women and 43% men; the female user base for Facebook is 43.2%, for YouTube 46%, for Twitter 43.6%, and for Instagram 47.8%). The United States has 109.54 million TikTok users. The average TikTok user spends 850 minutes on the app each month. 90% of TikTok users access the app daily. Advertising revenue generated by TikTok exceeded $13.2 billion in 2023. Consumer spending on TikTok surpassed $3.8 billion in 2023 (
On this aspect,
Tobeña, V., "Pensar el futuro de la escuela desde comunidades de prácticas. Claves desde TikTok",
For a critical analysis please refer to Lugo Sánchez, L. J., "El desafío de usar TikTok como recurso tecnopolítico para narrativas auto referenciales. Hacia una propuesta desde la etnografía digital", in Baena-Cuder, I.; Rando Cueto, D., and Otero Escudero, S. (ed.),
Nieto Sandoval, A. G., and Ferré Pavia, C., "TikTok y cambio climático: comunicar sin fuentes ni soluciones",
Sidorenko, P.; Herranz, J. M., and Moya, A., "Análisis de la comunicación de empresas europeas y norteamericanas en TikTok",
For an overview of the vulnerability conditions of minors, please allow me to refer to Casadei, Th., "La vulnerabilità delle persone di minore età: profili giusfilosofici", in Bernardini, M. G., and Lo-rubbio, V. (eds.),
The regulation defines four risk levels for classifying artificial intelligence applications, which will then be subject to different levels of oversight. The four categorization levels are as follows: unacceptable risk; high risk; limited risk; minimal risk.
For a recent case study, significant from a legal perspective as it revolves around the approval of a highly debated law in Spain,
Resolution No. 298/23/Cons, Regulation Implementing Article 41(9) of Legislative Decree No. 208 of 8 November 2021 Concerning Programmes, User-Generated Videos or Audiovisual Commercial Communications Directed at the Public Italian Audience and Conveyed by a Platform For Video-Sharing Platform whose Provider is Established in Other Member State [online], available at:
For a general overview of the issue, in a rapidly expanding literature,
Herrman, J., "How TikTok is Rewriting the World" [online], New York Times, March 10, 2019, available at:
Atevenio, Por qué TikTok está cambiando las redes sociales [online], July 24, 2020, available at:
Van Dijck, J.; Poell, T., and De Waal, M.,
Boffone, T.,
Anderson, K. E., "Getting Acquainted with Social Networks and Apps: It is Time to Talk about TikTok",
Marino, G., and Surace, B. (eds.),
Ferrarese, M. R.,
Pahm, S., "How a Chinese Social Media App Made it Big in the U.S." [online], November 17, 2016, available at:
For a broad analysis,
Douyin is considered by many to be a weapon in the hands of the Chinese Communist Party: by uniting a vast and diverse country like China, the social platform helps build a sense of national unity and a spirit of mobilization that the Party has long sought. See, in this regard, Chen, X.; Kaye, D. B., and Zeng, J., "#PositiveEnergy Douyin: Constructing 'Playful Patriotism' in a Chinese Short-Video Application", Chinese Journal of Communication, 2020, 97-117. Such a tool can be interpreted, as has been suggested, in a strictly geopolitical key, which already reflects a potential conflict in the present: cf. De Ruvo, G., Da Hegel a TikTok. Metafisica e geopolitica del capitalismo digitale, Preface by L. Caracciolo, Lesmo (Monza), Etabeta, 2022. In this sense, the author of the volume reconstructs the events that led to Donald Trump's request, later rejected by a judge, for a ban on TikTok in 2020. The situation involves a complex political and diplomatic game unfolding between China, Hong Kong, TikTok, its American CEO, America itself - first with Trump and then with Biden - Zuckerberg, American judges, and also involves the European Union. The space between Hong Kong, the eastern vanguard of China, and Taiwan, the western rear guard of America, is precisely the space where the conflict could escalate into a military one. For a discussion of these aspects and more generally of the contents of the volume, see the review by Soda, G.: "'Da Hegel a TikTok' by Giuseppe De Ruvo" [online], Pandora, April 24, 2023, available at:
Kaye, D. B. V.; Chen, X., and Zeng, J., "Co-evolution of Chinese Mobile Short Video Apps: Parallel Platformization of Douyin and TikTok",
The role of the algorithm, according to De Ruvo, will be ideological in measuring, calibrating, and directing public opinion and the sentiment of participation in the hypothetical confrontation, in addition to a potential function of espionage as well as the "negative" steering of public opinion.
Scolari, C., "Más allá de TikTok: el ecosistema de las plataformas en China" [online], Hipermedi-aciones, July 11, 2020, available at:
Macías Rodríguez, H. J., "Entre el entretenimiento y la socialización: un acercamiento a la cultura digital adolescente a través de TikTok",
According to some statistical studies, a quarter of all top-performing videos are between 21 and 34 seconds long.
Conde, M., "Estructura mediática de TikTok: estudio de caso de la red social de los más jóvenes",
For a guide designed to reach younger consumers, see Girardi, E.,
For a framing of the phenomenon, please see: Bello, B. G., and Scudieri, L. (eds.),
Zeng, J., and Kaye, D. B. V., "From Content Moderation to Visibility Moderation: A Case Study of Platform governance on TikTok",
See, in this regard, the contribution by María del Carmen Barranco Avilés in this same Forum.
Since the Taliban took power, TikTok has been banned in Afghanistan to prevent 'young people from being deceived'. In Russia, residents are allowed access only to Russian content.
On this point,
See, in this regard, Ciccia Messina, A., "Servizi della società dell'informazione: protezione dei dati dei minori e
For a comment on this nodal aspect, please allow me to refer to Casadei, Th.; Coniglione, C.; Rossi, B., and Severi, C., "Al via il 'nuovo' Parental Control System. Ma serve anche più cultura" [online], Agenda digitale, November 21, 2023, available at:
For the text of the provision, see:
Resolution No. 298/23/Cons, Regulation Implementing Article 41(9) of Legislative Decree No. 208 of 8 November 2021, cit.
Kalra, A., and Varadhan, S., Indian Court Refuses to Suspend Ban Order on Chinese app TikTok [online], Reuters, April 16, 2019, available at:
On these figures: Bruzzone, R., and Caputo, A. (eds.),
For a general discussion,
Ridley, K., "TikTok Faces Claim for Billions in London Child Privacy Lawsuit" [online], Reuter, April 21, 2021, available at:
The link to the judgement of the Landgericht München is as follows: Landgericht München I, Urteil vom 09.02.2024, Aktenzeichen 42 O 10792/22 [online], available at:
Lavagnini, S., "TikTok condannata: cosí la Direttiva Copyright rafforza la tutela del diritto d'auto-re" [online], Agenda digitale, March 14, 2024, available at:
See, in this respect, Gorman, L., and McLean, D.,
On this specific and very relevant aspect please refer to Kadrow, S., and Müller, J.,
For a general framework of these processes: Stella, R.; Riva, C.; Scarcelli, C., and Drusian, M.,
On the impact of these processes on the cultural production,
Stella, R.; Riva, C.; Scarcelli, C., and Drusian, M.,
On this aspect,
In this regard,
Luque Ortiz, S.,
For a first framework,
Zulli, D., and Zulli, D. J., "Extending the Internet Meme: Conceptualizing Technological Mimesis and Imitation Publics on the Tiktok Platform",
Cf. Worb, J., "How Does The TikTok Algorithm Work? (+10 Hacks to Go Viral)" [online], Later Blog, 2020, available at:
On these profiles, please see the conclusive remarks developed in Issar, S., "The Social Construction of Algorithms in Everyday Life: Examining TikTok User's Understanding of the Platform's Algorithm",
Bhandari, A., and Bimo, S., "Why's Everyone on TikTok Now? The Algorithmized Self and the Future of Self-Making on Social Media",
On this aspect, I refer to my introductory note to this Forum.
Baraldi, C., "Le basi sociali dei diritti dei bambini", Jura Gentium, 2015 (forum su La Convenzione internationale dei diritti dell'infanzia e dell'adolescenza [1989]: riflessioni eprospettive, Casadei, Th., and Re, L. [eds.] [online], available at:
Bignardi, P.; Marta, E., and Alfieri, S. (eds.),
Hidalgo, J., "Jóvenes hipermediales: hipermediatización del yo y las juventudes interconectadas", in Barredo, D.; Rodrigues da Cuhna, M.; Hidalgo Toledo, J., and Freundt-Thurne, Ú. (eds.),
On this point,
For a series of framing and in-depth materials, it is possible to consult the Center for Digital Wellbe-ing, established by Prof. Marco Gui at the University of Milano-Bicocca:
By way of example, three fundamental principles of a digital educational pact can be outlined: collectively deciding the right time for introduction, that is, determining when children can begin to engage with different types of screens, agreeing together on the most appropriate content and which devices to provide; participating with families in moments of digital education, meaning deciding when to organize in-depth meetings and experience-sharing sessions that aim for a creative, enjoyable, and shared use of digital devices; and establishing binding rules on the use of smartphones and digital devices, meaning families and children define specific agreements that they commit to strictly adhering to.
For some examples
See, on this topic, ultimately, Scagliarini, S., "I diritti costituzionali nell'era di internet: cittadinan-za digitale, accesso alla rete e net neutrality", in Casadei, Th., and Pietropaoli, S. (eds.), Diritto e tecnologie informatiche. Questioni di informatica giuridica, prospettive istituzionali e sfide sociali, 2nd ed., Milan, Kluwer, 2024, 3-15. Cf. also Pietrangelo, M., "Cittadinanza digitale e diritto all'uso delle tecnologie", in Cammarota, G., and Zuddas, P. (eds.), Amministrazione elettronica. Caratteri, finalità, limiti, Turin, Giappichelli, 2020, 15 ss. The norms on digital citizenship in Italy find their constitutional basis not only in Article 97 of the Constitution, but also in the fundamental principles and interpretive guidelines related to personal development. As has been noted, "[d]igital citizenship is ultimately expressed in a set of rights that stem not only from the right to use technologies but also from principles of transparency, participation, and collaboration, such as the right to 'simple and integrated' online services (Article 7) and the right to electronic democratic participation (Article 9), which refers to the use of information technologies at various stages of the democratic process, in order to ensure and promote participation in the public sphere, engagement in decision-making processes, and citizen oversight. Individual freedom in the digital dimension is thus articulated not only in an individual sense but also in a social and public dimension related to the democratic process. The digital rights of citizens are accompanied by the corresponding duty on the part of institutions to make them effective, as they are called upon to activate the necessary tools to bring about concrete digital citizenship and are also held accountable in the event of non-compliance with the provisions" (Faini, F., "L'amministrazione pubblica nella società tecnologica e i diritti digitali", in Casadei, Th., and Pietropaoli, S. [eds.], Diritto e tecnologie informatiche. Questioni di informatica giuridica,prospettive istituzionali e sfide sociali, cit., 121). In a now extensive literature on these aspects, see also: Fuggetta, A., Cittadini ai tempi di Internet: per una cittadinanza consapevole nell'era digitale, Milan, Franco Angeli, 2018; Faini, F., 'Tecno-logie informatiche, pubblica amministrazione e cittadinanza digitale", in Cassano, G., and Previti, S. (eds.), Il diritto di Internet nell'era digitale, Milan, Giuffrè Francis Lefebvre, 2020, 1103-1116; Pascuzzi, G., La cittadinanza digitale: competenze, diritti e regole per vivere in rete, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2021; Costantino, F., "La c.d. cittadinanza digitale", Dirittopubblico, 2023, n.° 1, 143-178.
Casadei, T., 'TikTok: A Legal Perspective on the Digital Environment, Highly Accessed by Minors",