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1. Introduction

In 2002, the Brazilian Government made Environmental Education a mandatory subject for every Brazilian student (Decree 4.281/2002 of 25 June by the President of the Republic, National Environmental Education Policy, 2002), which helped to bring the word sustainability closer to young Brazilian consumers. However, even when people are aware of environmental issues and claim they are supportive of initiatives that help to preserve the environment or minimize the damage caused by hum5an action, it does not mean they will purchase and consume environmentally friendly products (Kim & Choi, 2005; Gorni et al., 2012). Personal issues may triumph over environmental concerns (Gupta & Ogden, 2009; Kennedy et al., 2009). The European Commission has set up a project to identify products that, during their life cycle, have major impacts on the environment. Although it is not possible to be absolutely certain of the individual impact of products, some evidence suggests that clothing items have a significant effect, accounting for 2% to 10% of the total environmental impact (Tukker et al., 2006). Even if young Brazilians are aware of the impact caused by the textile and apparel industry, this awareness does not translate into purchasing environmentally sustainable clothing.

Because sustainable purchase and consumption choices are increasingly becoming more important, the aim of this study is to investigate the attitudes, perceptions and behavioral intentions of young Brazilian customers regarding the purchase of clothing made of environmentally sustainable fabrics, particularly the purchase of jeans produced with cotton with the addition of Tencel® in its composition. Attitude concerns how much an individual view something as favorable or unfavorable (Ajzen, 1991), and is understood as memory association between an object and its evaluation. When an attitude is accessible from memory, it may guide behavior toward the object in question (Fazio, 1989). Consumer behavior is affected by attitude (Grazia & Magistris, 2007), and consumers may purchase and consume environmentally friendly products as a means of showing their environmental attitude (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012). In order to accomplish the objectives of the research, a quantitative study was conducted. A paper-based survey was distributed to over 250 undergraduate students from two universities located in Cascavel (PR).

Jeans were chosen as the focus product in this study because they are easily available andworn by most young Brazilians. Over time, jeans have had a great cultural and social influenceon consumers around the world. Especially among young people, jeans have gained status andbecome a symbol of rebellion, independence and attitude towards society (Paul, 2015). It isalmost impossible to meet someone in their teens who does not own and wear jeans regularly (Shin et al., 2013). Brazil is the second largest producer and third largest consumer of denim in the world (Associação Brasileira da Indústria Têxtil e de Confecções [ABIT], 2016). Cotton is the main raw material for manufacturing denim, yet growing cotton involves many issues related to sustainability, especially regarding the amount of water required for cultivation and the use of pesticides. During the production of denim, different fibers may be added to cotton, such as lycra, polyester, lyocell® or Tencel® and wool (Paul, 2015). Textile fibers are divided into two main groups: natural fibers and man-made fibers. However, the sustainability of a fiber is not the result of its origin, whether natural or artificial, since the production process of this fiber can influence its impact on the environment positively or negatively (International Rayon and Synthetic Fibres Committee [CIRFS], 2016).

Shen et al. (2010) studied the environmental impact of different fibers manufactured from cellulose (viscose, modal and Tencel®) using the evaluation of the product life cycle. The results were compared in order to evaluate the results of the life cycle of other textile products. These products were conventional cotton, based on the average results of American and Chinese production, and PET and PP fibers produced in Eastern Europe. The results show that the fibers manufactured from cellulose have a huge potential for reducing environmental impacts when compared to cotton or synthetic fibers made from petrochemical compounds. Tencel® has proved to have the least impact of all tested fibers: low power consumption, low chemical consumption, low carbon dioxide emissions, low emissions of sulfur dioxide and low water consumption. Cotton, in turn, has shown a high environmental impact due to its greater use of land and water, as well as the toxicity caused by pesticides. On average, in the production of a pair of cotton jeans, 3,233 liters of water are required. On the other hand, to produce the same pair of pants using Tencel®, instead of cotton, on average 1,454 liters of water are needed (Chico et al., 2013). In Brazil, Tencel® still represents a small portion, approximately 4% of the products made from soluble cellulose (Vidal, 2014). Tencel® was chosen for its environmental sustainability and its availability on the Brazilian market.

To achieve this objective the choice was an extended model of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) proposed by Kang et al. (2013), who studied the effect of consumer knowledge, perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived personal relevance in the purchase intention of organic cotton made clothes. Consumer behavior in relation to the intended consumption of green products has been widely explored in the world with the use of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991): hotel choice (Han et al., 2010; Chen & Tung, 2014), food (Arvola et al. 2008; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2008), cosmetics (Kim and Chung, 2011) and textiles and clothing (Kang et al., 2013; Bong Ko & Jin, 2017). In Brazil, however, it had not been used to research purchase intention towards items of clothing. Therefore, this empiricalstudy strives to fill the research gap by operationalizing and validating the relationship amongconsumer knowledge, perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived personal relevance andthe Theory of Planned Behavior in the current young Brazilian consumers’ context and theirpurchase intention towards sustainable apparel and textiles.

2. Literature review and the hypotheses formulation

2.1 The theory of planned behavior

The theory of planned behavior is an evolution of the theory of rational action, which was based on the assumption that human beings usually behave in a conscious way, taking into account all available information and considering, implicitly or explicitly, the consequences of their actions. According to the theory of rational action, the intention to act or not act is the decisive factor for action (Ajzen, 1985).

On the other hand, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) was designed to predict and explain human behavior in specific circumstances (Ajzen, 1991), since people make decisions guided by a rational assessment of the consequences of the performance of a specific behavior (Bamberg & Möser, 2007). TPB includes non-volitional factors as determinants of behavior (Ajzen, 1985), since the satisfactory performance of a desired behavior is conditioned by personal control over the various factors that can make it impossible. Hence, as an effort to cope with those occasions on which the existence of non-volitional factors may prevent people from performing the desired behavior, the construct of perceived behavioral control was included (Armitage & Conner, 2001; Ajzen, 2002). Thus, according to the TPB, there are three independent determinants of intention: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Attitude refers to what extent an individual conducts an evaluation for or against the concerned behavior. Subjective norm consists of the social pressure that the individual perceives to behave or not behave in a certain way. Perceived behavioral control refers to the conviction of access to opportunity and resources necessary for the performance of a certain behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The more the person tries, and the more control the person has over personal or external factors that may interfere, the greater the probability that the individual will perform the planned behavior. Some behaviors require lower levels of exertion, whereas their implementation depends largely on the level of control. However, other behaviors need little control, and for the successful performance of such behaviors, levels of exertion vary (Ajzen, 1985).

Social behavior follows a kind of plan, and a successful attempt to execute such a plan depends not only on the effort invested, but also on the control the individual has over other factors such as skills, expertise, necessary information, will, time, opportunity and presence of mind (Ajzen, 1985). The results of empirical research brought to light substantial indications of the urge for differentiation between measures of self-efficacy (ease or difficulty to perform a behavior) and measures of controllability (consisting of beliefs regarding the extent to which performing the behavior depends on the actor). This led to the constitution of a hierarchical model of perceived behavioral control in which, despite their distinction, both measures should be correlated (Ajzen, 2002).

The existence or non-existence of an attempt to perform a given behavior and the effort involved in the attempt are the result of the intention to perform the behavior. According to the TPB, a key element is the intention of an individual to perform a certain behavior, because the intention is understood as the agent that binds motivational factors that will influence a behavior, i.e., the greater the intention to behave in a certain way, the greater the chance that such behavior will happen (Ajzen, 1991). The intention, in turn, is a function of two factors: the attitude that leads to behavior and the subjective norm in relation to the attempt. The attitude that leads to the attempt is based on two distinct actions: one points to a satisfactory behavior attempt, while the other points to an unsatisfactory behavior attempt. Each one is considered by the subjective probability of the concerned event. Both attitudes are determined by different beliefs that involve the consequences of a successful attempt or a failed attempt and the evaluation of those consequences. Likewise, the subjective norm is also considered by the probability of success given to important social referrals (Ajzen, 1985).

However, attitude itself does not guarantee the performance of a behavior, but they are correlated, as attitude molds the behavioral intentions that will forge actions (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). Even when people develop an intention to perform a behavior, they might not take any action or they may fail to act according to their own affirmed intentions (Ajzen et al., 2004), which constitutes an effect known as intention-behavior gap, evidence suggesting that intentions turn into action approximately 50% of the time (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). This has been the subject of a vast amount of research in different fields of study such as physical activities (i.e. Sniehotta et al., 2005; Allan et al., 2011), healthy diet (i.e. Rhodes & de Bruijn, 2013) and technology usage (i.e. Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2009). Furthermore, research has been undertaken regarding the pro-environmental intention-behavior gap. Researchers have chosen different approaches to the issue. Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) proposed a model of pro-environmental behavior that included internal factors (personal traits, personal value, knowledge and attitudes) and external factors (infrastructure, economicsituation, social, political and cultural factors) that could reduce the intention-behavior gaps andindicate potential barriers to pro-environmental behavior. These would focus on the oldbehavior patterns, which are, according to the authors, an underrated but rather relevant factor.Hansla et al. (2008) researched attitude towards green electricity and willingness to pay for it.Their findings suggested that a positive attitude towards green electricity increased thewillingness to pay for it, but electricity costs served as a factor to discourage its use. Kennedyet al. (2009) investigated the environmental values-behavior gap in Canada and their resultssuggested three different categories of variables to account for this gap: individual, household,and societal. Gupta and Ogden (2009) suggested that the purchase of green products isinfluenced by reference groups and motivated by collective rather than individual gains. Thesefindings are in keeping with those of Harland et al. (1999), who suggested a relationshipbetween personal norms and pro-environmental behavior. This approach, known as normactivationtheory, states that internalized values and feelings of personal obligation may be thecatalyzer to someone’s behavior, especially when an individual is sensitive to the results of theirown actions on the well-being of others. Miao and Wei (2013) investigated the differencesbetween motivations and pro-environmental behavior in two specific settings: households andhotels. The results suggested that, despite the importance of normative motives in a householdsetting, the likeliness of an individual acting pro-environmentally in a hotel setting is a functionof selective motives.

Attitude towards a determined behavior is provided by the sum of perceived positive and negative consequences (Bamberg & Moser, 2007) and normative beliefs concerning important references and also the motivation to comply with those references (Ajzen, 1985). Attitude and subjective norm are both antecedents of intention, whereas perceived behavioral control (PBC) is held to affect intentions and behavior (Armitage & Conner, 2001; Bamberg & Moser, 2007). Regarding the specific context of green products, Yadav and Pathak (2017) findings showed that TPB supported consumers’ intention to buy green, which in turn, according to them, influences consumers’ green purchase behavior. Also, according to Paul, Modi and Patel (2016, p. 129), “should attitude and perceived behavioral control be positive, consumers will be morelikely to have purchase intentions for green products”. Moreover, a positive relationshipbetween attitude and behavioral intention has been established across different cultures andproducts (Noor et al.,2017; Chen, Chen, & Tung, 2018; Kirmani & Khan, 2018; Taufique &Vaithianathan, 2018). Culiberg and Elgaaied-Gambier (2016) researched the mediator effect ofsocial norms in pro-environmental behavior in France and Slovenia and the results suggested that it was a significant predictor of pro-environmental behavior. Results from a research ongreen purchase behavior in all European Union (EU) countries, conducted by Liobikiené,Mandravickaité and Bernatoniené (2016), suggested that subjective norms had the majorinfluence on green purchase behavior.

Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior and the model proposed by Kang et al. (2013), the following hypotheses were formulated:

1. H1: Attitude positively affects behavioral intention in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

2. H2: Subjective norm positively affects behavioral intention in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

3. H3: Perceived behavioral control positively affects behavioral intention in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase.

2.2 Consumer knowledge

Consumer knowledge (CK) is a multidimensional construct, as there is no single type of knowledge. The two largest consumer knowledge dimensions are familiarity, defined as the cumulative consumer experience, and product knowledge, defined as the amount of information (product class information and expertise) about a product accumulated in memory (Alba & Hutchinson, 1987; Philippe & Ngobo, 1999). According to Brucks (1985), there are three different types of product knowledge: subjective knowledge, objective knowledge, and usage experience. Subjective knowledge involves the amount of knowledge individuals believe they possess, whilst objective knowledge involves what they actually know. Finally, usage experience refers to prior experiences in purchasing or using a product (Brucks, 1985; Raju et al., 1995). Peschel, Grebitus, Steiner and Veeman (2016) researched the influence of consumer knowledge on environmental sustainable choices, namely two different environmentally labeled food staples. The data collected from online choice experiments conducted in Germany and Canada suggested that high subjective and objective knowledge levels, in both countries, leads to environmentally sustainable food choices.

Consumers have different levels of product knowledge that allow them to consider new information and make purchasing decisions. Moreover, the different types of knowledge, although they emerge in different ways, are related to information search and decision-making behavior (Brucks, 1985; Raju et al., 1995). Product knowledge may be divided into different components such as product attributes (the knowledge of which attributes are available when evaluating a product), terminology (the knowledge of the meanings of terms employed withina specific field), specific attribute evaluation, general attribute evaluation and personal productusage knowledge (Brucks, 1986).

When faced with a new product, consumers willing to make a purchasing decision use their previous experience to evaluate the new product (Lai, 1991). Knowledge allows consumers to search with greater efficiency, as it facilitates inquiring about a larger number of attributes. Knowledge also prevents unsuitable information searches (Brucks, 1985).

According to Reynolds and Whitlark (1995), product knowledge frequently stems from the cognition of values incorporated into product attributes and the results of using a product. Product attributes may be categorized in different ways. According to Alpert (1971), it is fundamental to identify the reasons why consumers make their purchase decisions. Myers and Alpert (1968) recognized three different levels of product attributes according to their relevance: salience, relevance, and determinacy. To Zeithaml (1988), the purchase decision process is influenced by the assessment of intrinsic attributes (such as durability, design and size) and extrinsic attributes (such as price and brand name), which lead consumers to perceive different perspectives of quality, price and value in different purchase options.

Peter and Olson (1994) divide product attributes in two categories: concrete and abstract attributes. Consumers can also include an affective evaluation for each attribute. Furthermore, tangible and intangible product attributes contribute to consumer value formation (Allen, 2000; McColl-Kennedy & Kiel; 2000; Kotler, 2002). According to Snelders and Schoormans (2004: 815), people do not relate abstract attributes to concrete attributes, since “unrelated abstract attributes are typically about hedonic aspects of the product, whereas arguments with concrete attributes are typically about ergonomic aspects of a product”. Barrena and Sánchez (2009) researched wine consumers to determine the relationship between product attributes and emotional benefits. Their findings showed that consumers considered a higher number of concrete attributes than abstract ones when deciding which wine to buy. Likewise, in a study conducted by Amatulli and Guido (2011), when indicating attributes associated to luxury products, consumers indicated the preponderance of concrete attributes over abstract ones, in terms of numbers and in terms of centeredness. To Barrena and Sánchez (2012), who investigated the variation in customer choice structure in relation to three different types of products (rice, wine and functional food), concrete attributes are more relevant than abstract attributes, particularly for experience and search products, such as rice and wine, respectively. When investigating the intrinsic and extrinsic cues that determine consumers’ purchase intention toward denim jeans, Rahman (2011) identified five clusters of both concrete and abstract key benefits. This shows that consumers do not seek single attributes when choosing apair of denim jeans, but rather search for other elements that could affect their cognitive andaffective responses to it, besides its concrete or physical aspects.

While investigating the impacts of environmental knowledge and attitudes on vehicle ownership and use, Flamm (2009) found suggestions of a strong relationship between attitudes and environmental knowledge. The respondents with higher levels of pro-environmental attitudes also had higher levels of knowledge regarding the effects of vehicle ownership and use on the environment. Regarding acceptance, valuation and attitudes towards genetically modified food, the findings of Costa-Font et al. (2008) showed that objective knowledge in particular increases the probability of accepting genetically modified food. According to these authors, in countries where there is little information about genetically modified food, there is a high likelihood of finding information searchers relating negative (positive) information with pessimistic (optimistic) attitude. In Hong Kong, the results of an empirical study conducted by Lee (2010) showed that adolescents’ green purchase behavior is influenced directly or indirectly by their peers through local environmental involvement and concrete environmental knowledge. Investigating the purchase intention of Water Buffalo Milk Products, product knowledge scored the highest among all the variables studied, pointing out the relevance of product knowledge in consumers’ intentions (Cazacu et al., 2014). The relationship between knowledge and the intention to purchase environmentally sustainable apparel has been explored in the literature. Consumers who have greater knowledge of the product are more willing to purchase clothes made of sustainable fabrics and pay more for them (Kozar & Connel, 2103; Oh & Abraham, 2016). Moreover, the influence of behavioral antecedents on the desire for green products differs according to the level of knowledge a consumer has (Kim et al., 2015).

Considering the importance of consumer knowledge in making a product purchase decision, as suggested by the literature and the model proposed by Kang et al. (2013), the following hypotheses were formulated:

1. H4: Consumer knowledge positively affects attitude related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

2. H5: Consumer knowledge positively affects subjective norm related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

3. H6: Consumer knowledge positively affects perceived behavioral control related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase.

2.3 Perceived consumer effectiveness

Perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) can be defined by the degree to which individuals believe that the actions of a single consumer can help to minimize the negative impacts their consumption decisions have on the environment. PCE was first defined by Kinnear et al. (1974) in an attempt to improve the scale created by Anderson and Cunningham, incorporating behavioral indicators and attitude related to socially conscious consumption norms.

Later, Ellen et al. (1991) suggested that an individual cannot be effective without knowing what needs to be done. Therefore, they claimed it was possible to increase the PCE level by providing information, recognition of desirable behaviors and offering options to individuals. PCE is characterized by the power to fully capture established beliefs regarding the effectiveness of consumer choices in general, working as a mediator of emotional impact on the intention to purchase sustainable products (Antonetti & Maklan, 2014).

PCE is a driver of environmentally conscious consumption behavior (Akehurst et al., 2012; Cho et al., 2013; Mark & Law, 2015), because the perception of greater effectiveness increases the probability of an individual engaging in a green purchase, especially those individuals who think collectively and believe that their behavior will serve to mitigate environmental damage (Kim & Choi, 2005; Gupta & Ogden, 2009). The moderation effect of PCE in the impact of health-conscious lifestyles and diets was the interest of Ghvanidze et al. (2016). The results from their research suggested that individuals with higher levels of PCE are interested in the information related to environmental and social issues on food labels, expressing their concerns about the environment and the society through their purchasing behavior.

Moreover, Kim and Choi (2003) proposed a model to assess the effects of a range of variables on environmentally conscious behaviors. The results suggested that PCE has a direct influence on behaviors of responsibilities such as recycling and energy saving behaviors. Additionally, a higher PCE directly affects the probability that individuals will embrace the purchase of environmentally sustainable products (Kim & Choi, 2005; Webb, Mohr & Harris, 2008). Aiming to gather information on socially responsible behaviors, Webb et al. (2008) created a scale with three dimensions: purchasing based on firms’ corporate social responsibility performance, recycling, avoidance and use reduction of products based on their environmental impacts. The results were suggestive of PCE as a key determinant of socially responsible consumption. The results from a quantitative study of young Turkish consumers in which the researchers intended to explain how the consumer guilt, self-monitoring and PCEinfluenced green consumption intention, PCE showed to be the most influential construct ongreen purchase intention (Kabadayi et al., 2015). Additionally, for Indian urban youngconsumers, PCE had the higher influence on their behavior (Taufique & Vaithianathan, 2018).

Based on the concept of perceived consumer effectiveness, defined by Kinnear et al.(1974), the review of the literature and the model proposed by Kang et al. (2013), the followinghypotheses were formulated:

1. H7: Perceived consumer effectiveness positively affects attitude related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

2. H8: Perceived consumer effectiveness positively affects subjective norm related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

3. H9: Perceived consumer effectiveness positively affects perceived behavioral control related to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase.

2.4 Perceived personal relevance

Involvement can be conceptualized as the perceived personal relevance of a product, which is grounded in personal values, needs and interests (Zaichkowsky, 1985; De Wulf et al., 2001). When an individual is involved, his/her behavior changes, paying more attention, perceiving importance and behaving in a different manner (Zaichkowsky, 1986).

In order to transform environmentally friendly values into an environmentally friendly purchasing behavior, it is necessary for the products on offer to be aligned with the consumer’s values and beliefs, and for product attributes to be positively perceived (Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008).

In a study conducted to determine the most important criteria for Korean students studying in the US when they seek health information on the internet, personal relevance was the most important criterion after precision (Yoon & Kim, 2014). As part of the European HealthGrain Project, which researched the development of products containing cereal in their composition, 2,385 respondents were heard in four European countries (Finland, United Kingdom, Germany and Italy) regarding the appeal of the health and nutrition components in these products, as cereal consumption has been associated with reduced risk of developing certain types of diabetes. Therefore, the more relevant the disease in the perception of the respondents (mainly personal relevance compared to other types of relevance), the greater the appeal of the product and the greater the likelihood of purchase (Dean et al., 2012).

In a survey on the consumption of functional dairy desserts, enriched with antioxidants, the tendency to purchase increased only for consumers with the highest level of involvement (Ares et al., 2010). Also, according to Van Loo, Hoefkens and Verbeke (2017), a consumer involved in sustainable eating is also involved in health eating, whilst the opposite cannot be hold true. Aiming to investigate the interactive influence of a brand’s country of origin and personal involvement with a product on purchase intention, Prendergast, Tsang and Chan (2010) found that when personal involvement was high, the difference in effect of the brand’s country of origin on purchase intention was insignificant.

Organic cotton made clothing consumers have positive attitudes to other organic products and organic agriculture in general. They also claim to be more concerned about the impact of the garment industry on the environment (Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009; Lin, 2009). On the other hand, fashion consumers, when making decisions about purchasing clothing items, tend to weigh their decisions, taking into account the quality and style that help express the unique aspects of their personalities and improve the perception others have of them (Cho et al., 2015; McNeill & Moore, 2015).

Considering the relationship suggested in the literature between the product and personal perceived relevance and the model proposed by Kang et al. (2013), the following hypotheses were formulated:

1. H10: Perceived personal relevance positively affects attitude in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

2. H11: Perceived personal relevance positively affects subjective norm in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase;

3. H12: Perceived personal relevance positively affects perceived behavioral control in relation to environmentally sustainable apparel purchase.

3. Methods

3.1 Data collection instrument

In structural equation modeling, we applied a version of the questionnaire developed by Kang et al. (2013) in order to test their model and to measure its 7 dimensions: Consumer Knowledge (CK) with 6 items, Perceived Consumer Effectiveness (PCE) with 3 items, Perceived Personal Relevance (PPR) with 2 items, Attitude (AT) with 6 items, Subjective Norm (SN) also with 6 items, Behavioral Control (BC) with 6 items and Behavioral Intention (BI) with 3 items. Their instrument was validated during a field research in which 714 undergraduate students from large universities located in the USA, South Korea and China participated.

Changes regarding the product were made, since the instrument was originally designed to measure attitudes, perceptions and behavioral intentions in relation to clothes made of organic cotton. In addition, minor adjustments were needed to make the questions more accessible to Brazilian respondents. All items of the scale, originally developed in English, were translated into Portuguese by a person fluent in both languages, through the forward translation method. All items were measured based on a 7-point Likert scale (1=very unlikely; 7=very likely). Additionally, the first 4 questions were used to create the profile of the respondents.

3.2 Sample and data collection

The respondents were recruited from undergraduates on Applied Social Sciences courses (Business Administration, Accounting and Economics) at two Brazilian universities, located in Cascavel (PR), one public (Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná – UNIOESTE) and the other private (Universidade Paranaense – UNIPAR). The convenience sampling procedure was used to select the respondents due to the researchers’ access to them. Undergraduates were chosen as the population of the survey for different reasons. First, in Brazil, all students must attend Environmental Education classes (Decree 4.281/2002 of 25 June by the President of the Republic, National Environmental Education Policy, 2002). Secondly, for young people, a pair of jeans is not merely a piece of clothing. It is a statement of personality (Shin et al., 2013). Finally, as we chose to use the model proposed by Kang et al. (2013), the use of undergraduates attending similar programs and belonging to the same age group allowed us to compare results between studies. The questionnaires were printed and handed to the respondents. They were invited to answer the questionnaire in their classrooms and their participation was not mandatory. A total of 282 students participated in the survey. In the data tabulation phase, 30 questionnaires were invalidated: 2 of them because they were incomplete and 28 because the respondents were outside the age group determined for the survey (respondents were under 18 or over 29 years old). For the data analysis phase, a total of 252 questionnaires were used. Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the respondents.

3.3 Data analysis

For the data analysis, we used Structural Equation Modeling Analysis (SEM), with the Partial Least Squares method (PLS), using SmartPLS 3.0 software. Structural equation modeling is a procedure used to estimate a set of dependent relationships among a group of constructs represented by multiple variables, which are measured and incorporated to an integrated model (Malhotra, Lopes, & Veiga, 2014). The method was chosen due its wide use in the field of applied social sciences, particularly in Marketing research (Hair Jr, Gabriel, & Patel, 2014). Additionally, in case the available data is non adherent to a regular multivariate analysis, structural equation modeling based on partial least square estimation models are advisable (Ringle, Silva, & Bido, 2014). Based on the data processing and proposed assumptions, the results are presented in the following section.

4. Results

Table 2 not only displays the descriptive statistics (mean value and standard error), but also shows the correlations between each pair of variables.

As can be seen on Table 2, the correlation between each variable that forms the model is significant.

The validation of the measurement model was performed observing: a) convergent validity; and b) discriminant validity. To verify the convergent validity, the values of Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability and AVE (Average Variance Extracted) werecalculated. The final adjusted model is presented in Figure 1.

After performing the Confirmatory Factor Analysis, one of the items which composed the Behavioral Control construct was eliminated due its low factor loading.

The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient is calculated to assess the internal consistency of variables and its value must be greater than 0.70 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In the research, the Alpha was estimated at 0.651 to 0.883. This value was less than 0.70 only for the variable "Perceived consumer effectiveness". Values below 0.70 may be accepted in the early stages of research (Nunnally, 1978). As for the Composite Reliability, the estimated values were 0.808 to 0.922, well over the minimum acceptable value of 0.70. As for the AVE (Average Variance Extracted), the estimated values were 0.537 to 0.824, all above the limit of 0.50 (Cohen, 1988). These values are shown in Table 3.

To check the discriminant validity, we used the criterion of Fornell and Larcker (1981), where the discriminant validity is the extent to which one of the particular model variables represents a single construct, and the variable of the construct is different from the other constructs that make up the model. The results, shown in Table 4, confirm the discriminant validity of the model, where it is observed that the square roots of AVE (on the main diagonal) are higher than the correlations for each construct.

To validate the structural model, the R2 values were observed. They indicate the ratio of the variance of the endogenous variables that can be explained by the model. Although there is no consensus, Cohen (1988) points out that in Social Sciences R2 = 2% is classified as a small effect, R2 = 13% as an average effect and R2 = 26% as a great effect. Thus, the model has high explanatory power of the variable related to behavioral intention (42.6%).

Subsequently, the redundancy and commonalities values were calculated. The function of the former is to assess the accuracy of the model, i.e., how the proposed model approaches what was proposed. The values must be greater than zero, and they are calculated only for the dependent constructs (Hair Jr et al., 2014). The latter values (effect size or Cohen indicator) are calculated by the inclusion and subsequent exclusion of each model construct, allowing an evaluation of how each construct is suitable for setting the model. Values of 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 are considered small, medium and large effects, respectively (Hair Jr et al., 2014). These values are shown in Table 5.

4.1 Hypotheses test

The first series of hypotheses, H1, H2 and H3, aimed to identify whether attitude (AT), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioral control (BC), positively influence behavioral intention in relation to the consumption of textiles and ecologically sustainable clothing. According to the results, the attitude (p-value < 0.05) and subjective norm (p-value < 0.05) positively affect behavioral intention. As for the ratio between perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention, this was not confirmed (p-value = 0.446).

The second series of hypotheses, H4, H5 and H6, aimed to verify the effect of consumer knowledge (CK) on attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control, respectively. The results supported the confirmation of H5, that consumer knowledge positively affects subjective norm (p-value < 0.05). However, consumer knowledge had no effect on attitude and behavioral control (p-value > 0.05).

The third series of hypotheses, H7, H8 and H9, referred to the influence of perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) on attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control, respectively. The results supported the relationship between attitude and perceived consumer effectiveness (p-value < 0.05). However, the other hypotheses were not confirmed.

The fourth series of hypotheses, H10, H11 and H12, was intended to verify whether perceived personal relevance (PPR) positively affects attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control in relation to the consumption of textile and environmentally sustainable clothing items. The results supported the relationship between perceived personal relevance and attitude (p-value < 0.05) and subjective norm (p-value < 0.05), but not between perceived personal relevance and perceived behavioral control (p-value > 0.05). The results of the hypotheses tests are shown in Table 6.

5. Discussion

The first group of hypotheses was concerned with the three determinants of behavioral intention according to TPB: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). The results showed that attitude and subjective norm affect behavioral intention in relation to the purchase of sustainable clothing and textiles. This result corroborates the findings of Kang et al. (2013). Recent studies (Chen, Chen, & Tung, 2018; Kirmani & Khan, 2018; Taufique & Vaithianathan, 2018) also reported the importance of attitude in the intention to purchase a product, i.e., the predisposition of an individual to evaluate a product or a positive influence on the willingness to pay for a green product. However, a positive attitude toward a product does not always result in the desired intention, since other factors are also at play in the decision process. Consumers with a positive attitude towards sustainable products and pushed by their reference groups to consume these products, have a higher behavioral intention regarding the acquisition of these products (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008; Chen & Tung, 2014). According to Noor et al. (2017), subjective norm notably accounted for consumers’ decision to purchase green products. On the other hand, according to Taufique & Vaithianathan (2018), subjective norm was identified as not significant regarding its effect on ecologically consciousbehavioral intention.

According to the results, consumer knowledge does not affect attitude and perceived behavioral control. Kang et al. (2013) highlighted that when individuals have extensive knowledge of a product they feel they have the situation under control that they can manage any obstacles associated with the consumption of this product. In the spite of it, according to our results, this relationship was not supported. This may be due to young Brazilians’ lack of knowledge of green products and, in particular, of environmentally sustainable textile products, since it seems there is a relationship between previous experiences with organic products and the purchasing decision of other green products, such as clothing made of organic cotton (Hustvedt & Dickson, 2009) or organic toiletries (Kim & Chung, 2011). Also, Gleim et al. (2013) used a multi-method examination to identify the barriers to green consumption and, according to their findings, expertise is a significant factor to enhance green purchase decisions.

Regarding the effect of the construct "Perceived consumer effectiveness" in relation to the consumption of clothing made of environmentally sustainable fabrics, only the hypothesis that predicted that PCE affects the attitude in relation to the purchase of such products was supported. The perception that consumers can preserve and improve the environment through their own purchase decisions can drive the intention to purchase green products, especially when consumers are more concerned about collective rather than their own individual needs (Kim & Choi, 2005; Gupta & Ogden, 2009), as altruistic motivation is more relevant for green consumers in comparison to non-green consumers (Barbarossa & De Pelsmacker, 2016). This is not usually the case when purchasing clothes, as this is an individualistic act, a form of self- affirmation and self-expression: we are what we wear, we can identify people who look like us by the clothes they are wearing (Fletcher, 2012). Additionally, Heo and Muralidharan (2017, p. 12) results suggested that independent of how convinced Millennials were about their potential to solve environmental issues, “they had not or not changed their behavior”. In contrast to the results of the study conducted by Kang et al. (2013), our results seem to suggest that PCE does not affect behavioral control. Again, it might be that young Brazilians do not recognize the existence of environmentally sustainable fabrics, and terms such as organic cotton or Tencel® may not be part of their vocabulary, even though these products are offered through different sale channels. Mainardes, Yeh and Leal (2017) conducted a comparative study between Brazilian and Chinese consumers’ evaluations of the efficiency of actions to improve environmental quality. The results of their research indicated that, despite the high level of Brazilian consumers’ PCE, their level of trust in green products was not as high. According to the researchers, this may result from either the absence of reliable green products or poormarketing discourse. Nevertheless, the results are in keeping with the TPB: consumers willattempt to perform a certain behavior when they feel they have enough control over internaland external factors and the support of their social references (Ajzen, 1985). Perceivedbehavioral control also involves the perception that sustainable products are easily available, asthis increases the possibility of purchase (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008; Gleim et al., 2013).

The survey results also showed that when consumers associate a product with their own values, needs and goals, it is more likely that they will have a positive attitude towards the product (Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008). Furthermore, individuals with a higher level of PPR may also accept being pushed by their social group to consume such a product. Also, individuals who show higher levels of involvement in green activities are more likely to enhance in green purchasing behavior (Uddin & Khan, 2016). Consumers who feel a connection between their own lives and environmental are likely to spend significantly more in green purchase (Wong, Wan, & Mong-Há, 2014), as their involvement increases their perceived value of green products.

The results suggest that attitude and subjective norm are relevant aspects that determine the intention of an individual to perform a given behavior. These results are in keeping with the TPB (Ajzen, 1985). The results about corroborated the findings of Kang et al. (2013) and Schniederjans and Starkey (2014), suggesting that perceived behavioral control does not significantly increase purchase intention, contradicting previous studies (Paul, Modi, & Patel, 2016; Anh et al., 2017; Bong Ko & Jin, 2017; Tan, Ooi, & Goh, 2017).

Kang et al. (2013) expressed interest in whether this result would be repeated with consumers from different cultures, to determine whether behavioral control is an effective way to predict the consumption of clothing made of environmentally sustainable fabrics. In addition, according to the results in our study, the three exogenous variables (consumer knowledge, perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived personal relevance) did not positively affect behavioral control. These findings may be the result of two different factors. First, most young students are not familiar with the raw materials used in the production of clothing, whether environmentally sustainable or not. Second, when it came to filling out the questionnaire, this lack of knowledge of the composition of clothes in general made them feel confused, as they had not been aware that clothes made of Tencel® were for sale through different sales channels. Being unaware meant that the respondents did not realize that purchasing a Tencel® item was an effective way to contribute to the preservation and improvement of the environment and, at the same time, prevented them from forming a positive association between the product and their personal values. Consumers will increase their intention to purchase textiles andenvironmentally sustainable clothing when they have been given the necessary information tounderstand the product (Ellen et al., 1991). Most of current marketing strategies are directed tothe product’s green attributes, whilst they do not highlight the product’s real impact on theenvironment (Gleim, Smith, & Cronin Jr., 2018), thus consumers are not able to understand theenvironmental consequences of choosing a green product over a non-green one.

6. Conclusions

The present study presents a synthesis of elements that can assist academic researchers and marketing practitioners in decoding the factors that influence young Brazilian consumers towards the purchase of environmentally sustainable apparel and textiles. In this context, this study contributes in the understanding of the complex relationships among the variables such as consumer knowledge, perceived consumer effectiveness and perceived personal relevance and, according to the TPB, the three independent determinants of behavioral intention, namely attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Academic researchers from the field of green marketing as well as practitioners can employ the results to a better understanding of young Brazilians behavioral intentions.

The Brazilian textile industry has made a considerable effort to produce environmentally sustainable fabrics. As well as Tencel® added to denim, there are initiatives such as the use of natural-based softeners. Fully biodegradable gum used in weaving is produced from corn starch residues, and technologies that save resources such as water, chemicals and electricity during discoloring processes in laundering are used. However, there is a long way to go in Brazil regarding the purchase of clothing made of environmentally sustainable fabrics. Young Brazilians, although they believe that every consumer, as an individual, can make a difference in the preservation and conservation of the environment, remain unable to associate purchase decisions with a more sustainable lifestyle.

Every product that is manufactured and marketed causes an impact on the environment. Therefore, it is essential for investments in environmental education by educators and institutions to become more frequent and effective for this public. This is because this sector of the population, despite voicing concern for the environment, does not put words into action due to a lack of environmental awareness. In addition to investing in raw materials and environmentally friendly products and technologies that help to save environmental resources, it is also the responsibility of the Brazilian textile industries to inform consumers that the market offers clothing made of environmentally sustainable fabrics with competitive prices and a

variety of styles. Green product availability impacts on sustainable purchase behavior (Biswas & Roy, 2016). Consumers adopting an eco-friendly behavior does not mean that they have to dress in an old-fashioned way. Consumers need information to enable them, when deciding whether to purchase of a pair of jeans, to consider the environmental sustainability of the product, rather than focusing only on attributes such as design, brand or price.

The limitations of this study, which are both related to the research method and the context, are recognized. First, the survey questionnaire was originated from a measurement scale developed in a different cultural context, and perhaps it was not sufficient to capture the behavioral patterns that are unique in the Brazilian context. Purchasing backgrounds that may influence purchasing intention in relation to ecological sustainable fabrics can be incorporated into the model in order to achieve more elucidative inferences. Second, the data were collected from undergraduate students at two universities located in the city of Cascavel (PR), which limits generalizations. More representative samples, including broader geographical locations and comparisons between different regions are required. The third limitation is the strategy of using convenience sampling when researching undergraduate students. Although the age range of 18 to 29 years old is indicated as consumers of jeans, it may be interesting to examine the difference in attitudes, perceptions and behavioral intention in relation to the acquisition of jeans manufactured with ecologically sustainable fabrics in different subgroups. Another limitation refers to the potential incomplete understanding of the written text, which may have led to unreliable answers.

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Información adicional

How to cite the article:: Lionço, A., Johann, J. A., & Bertolini, G. R. F. (2019). Young Brazilianz’ purchase intention towards jeans made of Tencel® fibers. Revista Brasileira de Marketing, 18(3), 148-177.

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