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INTRODUCTION

Teleworking advantages as a work system are countless for both organizations and large capital cities, since the development of information and communication tech- nologies (ict) has made it possible to implement differ- ent business organization and management forms, thus helping to reduce commuting costs, optimize resources, exchange information and knowledge and, above all, recognize the capabilities and strengths of individuals as creators and autonomous beings, among other aspects (Vargas & Osma, 2013).

Other positive aspects are the worker welfare, labor flex- ibility, and a better balance between work and family commitments (Véliz Rojas, Valenzuela Suazo & Paravic Klijn, 2014). Telework can allow flexibility for people in several ways that can help improve their working life options (Raffaele & Connell, 2016). There are actually many advantages. On the other hand, there are some issues involving Occupational Safety and Health that must be reviewed accordingly, such as schedules and leaves, distribution of work equipment facilities, mus- culoskeletal problems associated with computer use, isolation and stress (Montreuil & Lippel, 2003). Little analysis has been conducted on the impact of working from home in the daily life organization and the changes in the domestic environment (Pérez Sánchez & Gálvez Mozo, 2009). Teleworkers have recognized mental fa- tigue at home as a source of stress (Hori & Ohashi, 2004), although stress at home, childcare, and teleworking imply a greater demand (Virick, Lilly & Casper, 2007). Boundaries between teleworking and home duties, social isolation from peers and the constant feeling of workplace detachment are blurred (Robertson, Schleifer & Huang, 2012).

Teleworkers report higher levels of job satisfaction but show a lower level of awareness and knowledge about ergonomics and safety issues (Von Bergen, 2008). Therefore, the support by the organization is relevant: security professionals should be involved in the devel- opment of equipment selection programs, in providing guidelines to teleworkers, and in establishing criteria for structuring the home office. It is important for compa- nies to provide good equipment or, at a minimum, the guidance on what employees should buy to telework. Employees should configure their workstations ergo- nomically and safely (Ellison, 2011). Security managers must ensure that their companies have strategies to en- sure the health and safety of this new class of workers (Topf, 2005). The occupational health task is to par- ticipate in the interdisciplinary work required by this phenomenon and implement in parallel this new form of work (Gareca, Verdugo, Briones & Vera, 2007).

Colombia has been a leading country in implementing teleworking. Documents have been prepared, like the ‘Libro Blanco: el ABC del Teletrabajo en Colombia’ (‘White Book: Fundaments of Teleworking in Colombia’), which is the first methodological approach aimed at planning and implementing labor models that take advantage of the ict, and simultaneously provide organizations with various advantages that cover the organizational, pro- ductive, financial, technical, and balance areas between the work and personal life of employees (Ministerio de las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones & Ministerio del Trabajo, 2016). The book presents guidelines for developing teleworking, although, in practice, several aspects are required for teleworking to meet Occupational Health and Safety standards (Decree 1072/2015 and iso 45001:2018). However, according to the literature review, in Colombia there are no occupa- tional health and safety management models for auton- omous teleworking.

The International Labor Organization (ilo) calls on spe- cific aspects when implementing this work modality. The voluntary nature of teleworking (cannot be imposed); employment conditions (teleworkers have the same rights as comparable category workers in the workplace); data protection (the employer is responsible for taking precautions regarding data protection); the private life area (the employer must respect the workers’ private life); equipment (typically, the employer is responsible for facilitating, installing and maintaining the necessary equipment for regular teleworking, except if the tele- worker decides to use his/her own equipment); health and safety (the employer is responsible for teleworkers’ health and safety); training and professional develop- ment (teleworkers have the same access to training and professional development opportunities as comparable category workers in the employer’s premises); and collec- tive rights (teleworkers have the same collective rights as comparable category workers in the employer’s premises) (International Labour Office, 2018).

Autonomous teleworking in Colombia is the work system posing a great challenge for organizations, i.e. work as a team and permanently fostering participation at all cycle stages and managing work inherent risks that could affect the teleworker’s health. All efforts must directly aim at protecting health, well-being, and balance of personal and work life of people working in a company in person or remotely (Cataño Ramírez & Gómez Rúa, 2014).

There are instances that can influence the implemen- tation of the occupational safety and health manage- ment model from the organization point of view, such as discipline as a fundamental value, implemented and declared from the organizational purpose itself and impregnated in the corporate dna (Contreras & Rojas, 2015). It becomes necessary to determine contractual aspects, companies’ responsibilities, definition of working hours and times, health and safety conditions, sur- veillance, supervision, need to create specific training for the teleworker, and companies that have this work system implemented (Bonilla Prieto et al., 2014).

In Colombia, some studies have addressed teleworking from the quality of life standpoint. A study conducted in Popayán (Cauca) identified occupational safety and psychosocial risk conditions in workers performing as teleworkers in that city (Bonilla Prieto et al., 2014). In Bucaramanga, a study conducted in the footwear sector showed that in hiring teleworkers it is necessary to es- tablish bonds of trust and develop skills that go beyond their computer skills. Entrepreneurs state that telework- ers must be responsible, creative, innovative, fulfill their duty, and develop skills related to communication, time management, and literacy to improve corporate compet- itiveness (Guzmán Duque & Abreo Villamizar, 2017). A study was carried out in Bogota to address the relevance of the diagnosis and proposal for the strengthening of the teleworking model aimed at continuous improvement at the ean University (Valbuena & Anaya 2017).

It is urgent for companies to have methodologies and tools to practically and friendly guide the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series (oshas), in com- pliance with international standards, taking into account that it is a new issue posing many questions. That is why the occupational health and safety management model for autonomous teleworkers becomes an organizational strategy, since the company under study hired telework- ers to work from home and they have not been in the company’s premises.

This article presents the outcomes of a research that aimed at developing an occupational safety and health manage- ment model for autonomous teleworking in Colombia, as well as the validation of three instruments that allow measuring such management maturity, work conditions, and the quality of work life of that population, in order to provide Colombian organizations with valid guidelines and instruments to strengthen their daily management of an occupational safety and health (osh) program.

METHODS

For research purposes, a correlation scope with a quan- titative approach was determined. Three instruments related to the categories set out in the research were selected for the construction of the model. The instru- ments are, namely: 1) Maturity of Management and Occupational Health and Safety ema (Rodríguez Rojas & Pedraza Nájar, 2018). 2) Working conditions, adapted from the Déparis Guide (Malchaire, n.d.), and 3) Quality of Life, which is a cvt - goshisalo -based instrument (González Baltazar et al., 2010). The instruments used have prior construct validation processes. In this study, the level of reliability according to Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.9744 for ema, 0.903 for wc, and 0.9692 for CoL.

Once the instruments were reviewed, the questions were adapted to the autonomous teleworkers condition in Colombia, and a survey was designed on the virtual platform of the company under study. The three survey instruments were then sent to teleworkers by email, who answered them between October 1, 2018 and January 9, 2019. Once the information on the surveys carried out was available, each of the instruments was statistically tested to assess internal consistency, factor analysis, and principal component analysis. Then the correlation between the instruments applied was established. Finally, based on that information, the hypotheses raised were evaluated:

Hypothesis 1: Working conditions have a significant re- lation with the improvement of the teleworker’s quality of life.

Hypothesis 2: Working conditions have a significant relation with the improvement of the maturity of the

oshas.

Hypothesis 3: The oshas maturity have a significant re- lation with the improvement of the teleworker’s quality of life.

The following methodologies were used for the valida- tion of instruments:

Internal consistency: Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure each instrument’s internal consistency. This measure seeks to prove the assumption that the differ- ent items measure the same theoretical dimension of the Maturity Level of Occupational Health and Safety System Management (ml of oshas) and that those items have a high correlation with each other.

The instrument validity is understood as the degree to which said instrument is capable of measuring what it is desired to measure. The Alpha value can range from 0 to 1, and values close to 1 are the desirable values, which indicate greater internal consistency. Good or excellent internal consistency means that the items making up the questionnaire can effectively be used to measure the variable of interest. In the work under analysis, an instrument is composed of a set of items that can be grouped into dimensions (Factors), so that one dimen- sion will be made up of some highly correlated items. The methodology followed for each instrument was:

1. 1. Descriptive evaluation of items general correlation based on the correlation matrix. It is desirable to observe high positive correlations.
2. 2. Descriptive evaluation of items correlation by theoretical dimension (Factor) based on the correlation matrix. It is desirable to observe high positive correlations.
3. 3. Cronbach’s Alpha calculation to formally complete the descriptive analysis.

Factor analysis: since based on the theoretical knowl- edge defined dimensions are supposed to be correct, it is necessary to corroborate whether the use of factors or di- mensions is appropriate due to the variability (variance) shown by the different items within an instrument. It is necessary to clarify that the use of factors has proven to be adequate. However, it is not proven whether the fac- tors chosen are suitable, since this would imply the use of a confirmatory factor analysis that has not been con- sidered in this research. The previous verification can be conducted based on some indicators and statistical tests. Two tools were used, namely: 1. Bartlett’s sphericity coefficient, 2. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin - kmo index.

Main component analysis: It was performed to define each item’s weight or weighting and each dimension by explaining the total variability of the osh maturity level. The main objective of the main components analysis is the reduction of dimensionality, i.e., a large set of vari- ables (items) needs to be reduced to a smaller number with the minimum loss of information. That is, explain variability with a smaller number of variables. These new variables are artificial (called main components) and are formed as a linear combination of the original variables. Therefore, the magnitude (absolute value) of the con- stants associated with each original variable in the linear combination can be interpreted as the importance of that original variable to explain the total variability, taking into account that all the items have the same scale of measure.

Analysis of correlations between instruments: After defining the weights of each item in each instrument, a rating per person per instrument was assigned, thus generating 77 observations per instrument. Then a cor- relation analysis among results obtained by each instru- ment was performed.

Surveys were sent to 160 officials, who were hired as autonomous teleworkers and served as the study popu- lation; 77 people answered the surveys, corresponding to 95% confidence, taking into account that the pop- ulation was 160 teleworkers when the study was con- ducted. The statistical analysis was carried out with the free software RStudio.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

he occupational health and safety management model for autonomous teleworkers was developed. Such model has different categories directly related to the teleworker, and the purpose is to manage osh from the promotion and prevention perspective for teleworkers.

The principles of the teleworking osh management aim at organizational conditions and person’s conditions, some of which apply concomitantly.

Worker Conditions

Self-management: The worker must be highly commit- ted and be the osh self-manager in his/her environment. Self-management is a key element of osh management (Topf, 2005). The worker must plan, do, check, and act based on his/her competence. He/she must be con- vinced that the safety and health at work depends on his/ her management in that area. Therefore, self-reports, hazard identification, implementation of controls, and effectiveness verification thereof depends on him/ her (Bustos, 2012; Ministerio de las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones & Ministerio del Trabajo, 2016; Topf, 2005).

Discipline: High commitment with the task and results are required from the teleworker, who must have the discipline to be able to work without supervision, which in terms of osh means to make healthy breaks, work er- gonomically, follow principles of order and cleanliness, and have a healthy lifestyle without direct supervision (Bajzikova et al., 2016; Montreuil & Lippel, 2003).

Organizational Conditions

Leadership: Leadership must cover all levels, i.e., com- pany strategic (senior management), tactics (supervisors, managers, managing positions), and operational compo- nents (workers). The leadership must address the causes of unsafe behaviors. The teleworker is his own leader and therefore must be responsible for his own health (Bustos, 2012; Topf, 2005).

Leadership and commitment, including awareness, re- sponsiveness, active support and feedback from senior management of the organization are paramount to the osh management system success and to the achieve- ment of the expected results thereof. Therefore, senior management has specific responsibilities for which it needs to be personally involved or needs to lead.

Senior management largely determines the culture that supports an organization’s osh management sys- tem and such culture results from values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and individual and group behavior models that determine the commitment to its osh management system, its style, and its aptitude. It is characterized by, but not limited to, the active partici- pation of workers, mutual trust-based cooperation and communications, shared perceptions of the importance of the osh management system through active involve- ment in the detection of opportunities for osh, and con- fidence in the effectiveness of preventive and protective measures. An important way for senior management to demonstrate their leadership is encouraging workers to report incidents, dangers, risks and opportunities, and to protect workers from retaliation such as threats of dismissal or disciplinary actions, if they do so (Instituto Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación, 2018).

Risk Based Thinking: It must address the risks and opportunities in osh and in the osha system (Instituto Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación, 2018).

Change management: Teleworkers can better protect themselves by thinking themselves as their own occupa- tional health and safety manager. The key is to change be- haviors by addressing the consequences, attitudes, beliefs, and contractual circumstances (Topf, 2005). Teleworking is a new way of working, so addressing osh risks requires changes in the teleworker behavior and in the organiza- tional culture. Organizations are constantly evolving, so to implement the model, a change in the management process must be concomitantly implemented at all levels.

The model scheme is shown below:

To structure the model, three instruments were ana- lyzed: oshas (ema) maturity scale, working conditions (wc) and Quality of Life (CoL):

ema: The instrument is composed of 24 items that seek to measure the theoretical dimension of Level of “Maturity of the Occupational Health and Safety Management System” (ml of oshas). The 24 items are classified in 10 dimensions with the same scale so for their analysis data standardization was not necessary.

wc: The instrument is composed of 18 items that seek to measure the theoretical dimension (ml of oshas). These 18 items have been measured with the same scale, so for its analysis data standardization was not necessary. These items are classified in three large dimensions that group several items:

CoL: The instrument is composed of 74 items that seek to measure the theoretical dimension (ml of os- has). These 74 items have been measured with the same scale, so for its analysis data standardization was not necessary. These items were classified in 7 dimensions according to their purpose:

The maturity model concept originated in organizational quality models and software industry models. They were created for organizations to understand their own level of maturity in security management, by assessing the level of compliance with the various key elements of the safety culture (Rodriguez-Rojas, Pedraza-Nájar & Martínez Arroyo, 2017). For the research, the maturity instrument of occupational health and safety manage- ment was adapted to teleworking (Rodríguez Rojas & Pedraza Nájar, 2018).

For ema instrument validation, the following steps were carried out:

To validate the wc instrument, the following steps were performed:

To validate the CoL instrument, the following steps were performed:

When finding a very low kmo, an analysis was carried out that showed that the proposed items to be eliminated were:

CV2D61. with 8 negative correlations CV1C49, with 6 negative correlations

CV1B28, with 4 negative correlations CV1B6, with 4 negative correlations CV2B8, with 4 negative correlations CV2E33, with 4 negative correlations

With this change, the kmo is recalculated and the result is 0.47. A considerable improvement was observed in this indicator and by removing the items the conclusions of the previous analyzes do not change significantly. Therefore, the new instrument is made up of 68 items, dimensions 1 were modified removing 3 items and di- mensions 2 removing 3 items., All subsequent analyzes will be performed with this modified instrument. Then the correlational analyzes between instruments were performed.

When observing the correlation between instruments, it is observed that ema has a moderately high positive correlation. However, the correlation with the WC in- strument is lower. The CoL instrument has a moderately high positive correlation with both ema and wc.

Taking into account that there are correlations that, although not very large, are not negligible, it is import- ant to describe the scores obtained by the CoL instru- ment based on the scores obtained by the ema and wc instruments. A multiple linear regression analysis was performed, and the following regression equation was obtained:

Where the intercept proved to have no statistical signif- icance, on the other hand, the regression coefficients for ema and wc proved to be statistically significant at a 95% confidence. The criterion used is the p-value, where p < 0.05 indicates statistical significance of the regression coefficient. The reported p-values are shown in Table 7:

From these results, the regression equation can be re- duced as follows:

However, this model generates an R^2 of 0.4615, which indicates that the model is only able to explain 46.15% of the total CoL variability. Therefore, it is not a good model to predict and it allows concluding that ema and wc alone cannot explain a sufficient total variability. This indicates that there are other explanatory variables that were not taken into account and this point can be used in future research.

In Colombia, teleworking is a formal work option that aims at improving people’s quality of life. The model proposes to involve the following conditions: work, en- vironment, task, organizations, change management, and leadership conditions. Colombian studies on tele- working prioritize factors such as establishing bonds of trust and developing skills that go beyond the worker computer skills (López-Medina, Mosquera-Angulo & Nieto-Gómez, 2014). Responsibility, creativity, inno- vation, and development of communication skills, time management and literacy improve business competi- tiveness (Guzmán Duque & Abreo Villamizar, 2017).

Teleworking implies many benefits (costs reduc- tions, time savings by avoiding commuting, and it is a factor of change to improve people’s quality of life). It is a new work option, which has several aspects still to be researched, a field where companies must have simple tools that allow the oshas implementa- tion and monitoring under international standards. The occupational health and safety management model for autonomous teleworkers shows up as an organiza- tional strategy, which will help organizations and tele- workers in the development of their tasks. It is necessary to further research other forms of teleworking in order to determine adaptations to the instruments and the model developed.

CONCLUSIONS

The Occupational Health and Safety Management Model for autonomous teleworkers is a starting point for developing useful methodologies for companies that are implementing teleworking and the oshas, and that are in the process of implementing the iso 45001/2018 and simply and systematically generating processes to support leaders of the Occupational Health and Safety processes. It is necessary to continue implementing the model in other types of teleworking and establish whether this model can be adapted to those groups. Since the instruments are statistically validated, there is a reliable tool for companies that wish to implement this model, which, although developed on a platform of the company under study, can be easily adapted through virtual media, by customizing the responses.

The instruments used (Maturity of the Occupational Health and Safety Management System (ema), Working Conditions (wc), and Quality of Life (CoL)) were taken from instruments already developed and used in other researches. The adaptation consisted on modifying them to focus on some teleworkers aspects, taking into account that this is a work system where the teleworker is part of a company but performs his/her work in a place other than the company’s premises. This approach seeks for the in- struments to be tools based on the teleworker’s daily life.

The ema and wc instruments, as they are designed, are reli- able elements to be used in the evaluation of aspects of the Occupational Health and Safety System for Teleworkers, while the Quality of Life at work instrument statistically requires eliminating some questions that generate low or no correlations. Independently, each of the instruments is a good tool to detect conditions; however, when grouped together, correlations are not so high.

The tendency of autonomous teleworking is to generate virtual spaces in their entirety, a situation that must be reviewed, so that they alternate with face-to-face en- counters in the work centers, and at the same time are monitored through instruments and follow-ups specific to teleworkers.

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