Introduction

We aim with this paper to establish a bibliographic research path to demarcate a concept about the in - service training of the school manager.

We start from a questioning posed by Tardif and Raymond (2000), whose provocation evokes an ethical dimension when it problematizes the dissociability between the subject and the work when remembering that the professional relations always imply in a drama, the use of itself. In this way, a tension is established in a permanent field of negotiation between the uses of oneself and the possible use of oneself by the others (TARDIF; RAYMOND, 2000).

When a teacher lectures, it is not only the assignment of a service, such as the drawing of an architectural plan but a process in which the teacher himself is a constituent part of the action, as a member who chooses to surrender, mix and modify in the process. It is an in-depth discussion because it questions the option of doing something of itself in their profession and, simultaneously, to admit, intentionally or not, that some rationality, external to itself, but equally professional, also gives meaning to its identity (TARDIF, 2000).

There is then a problem and a question that can or should equally affect the professional training processes of the school manager. Regardless of the answer that can be given, it is necessary to unravel it according to the intentionality that must guide formative choices epistemological and methodological.

Our research has led to two preliminary conclusions: first, that the theme of "continuing education" is much larger than "in-service training" in the field of research and academic articles and books. The second is that the in-service training of the school manager strictly figures in contrast to training in teaching service.

Due to the source’s abundancy on the concept of continuing teacher education, we chose to address references whose methodological premises would be the same as those for the school manager.

In this regard, it is in our interests to understand and distinguish the concepts of continuing education and in-service training, to refer our research to the in-service training of the school manager and also to understand how the relationships between the epistemological and practical fields are established. With this, we have proposed three fronts: the demarcation of the concept of in-service training; the relations between epistemology and practice in the field of in-service training; and, finally, the demarcation of a specific concept on in-service training of the school manager.

Concept of in-service training

Continuing education is a polysemic term. It is widespread in the same field of continuing education and in-service training. In this article, our goal is to demarcate this conceptual field, basically pointing out the differences between continuing education and in-service training.

We note in Chamon (2003) that historically, by the 1950s, the term training is associated with the notion of vocational training and is linked to the educational universe. Vocational training is inspired by American methods, which include the term training, which is translated as training or training. Professional training, in its genesis, approximates, in this case, an idea of training aimed at the improvement of technical/professional practice.

Chart 1

References to continuing training situations covered by LBD 9394/96

Source: elaborated by the authors based on LDB 9394/96

It can be observed in Chart 1 that all references to formative situations addressed in the LDB point to the qualification and improvement of the teacher for the specific exercise of his/her function.

According to Castro and Amorim (2015), before LDB, continuing training in Brazil was basically based on two lines that followed parallel after 1970: that of recycling and training. While the first one was updating, the second one trained the teacher. A first analysis of the table shows that these lines are still expressed in legislation.

Regarding the legislation on continuing education, Estrela (2001) points out as a problem the fact that academic theories mark laws without the consideration of teaching practice as an epistemological source.

Militão e Leite (2003), in a study about the historicity of continuing education, alludes to four concepts about continuing education.

Chart 2

Continuing education concepts

Source: Elaborated by the authors based on Militão e Leite (2003)

The comparative analysis between Charts 1 and 2 indicates the same incidence: formative situations offered in different modalities, but with the same purpose of providing professional knowledge for the teacher in teaching activity.

Consistent with the logic of concepts in Chart 2, Alarcão (1998) understands “[...] the process of continuous formation as the dynamic process through which, over time, a professional adapts his training to the demands of his professional activity”. (ALARCÃO, 1998, p. 100)² In the same sense, Paula (2009) points out that continuing education is characterized as proposals aimed at professional qualification, considering its improvement through the acquisition of knowledge. Regarding the methods of their professional area, these consist of proposals aiming professional qualification, considering their development through new knowledge acquisition. Regarding the methods of their professional field, these consist of proposals aimed at the qualification of the professional, considering the possibility of improving their practice by mastery of knowledge and methods of their field of work.

Salles (2015) identifies continuing education as the second stage of initial training. The author uses the term "continuing education in service" to refer to all the training actions systematically offered by the teaching systems, or those produced in school, in the teaching profession, influenced by the context of the work.

Continuing education from the indemnity perspective

Continuing education in the perspective of systematized formative situations, starting from intentionality. Salles (2015) also points to unsystematic cases, those that occur spontaneously due to the proper relations of pedagogical doing and in the context of reality.

Chart 3

Conceptual synthesis about formation through identity

Source: elaborated by the authors based on Salles (2015)

The analysis of Chart 3 makes visible the propositions of continuous formation that transcend each other. They have as a common element the centrality in the professional environment and in the psychosocial constructions, which are established beyond expectations translated into normalizations delimited by the educational systems about the teaching practice. This conceptual line of continuous training problematizes the teacher's identity relations, in this field, professional teacher identity would be a dynamic and complex equilibrium in which the very image of the professional has to harmonize with a variety of roles that teachers feel they should play. (MARCELO, 2009).

Based on Freire's (1997) incomplete knowledge perspective and human cognitive condition, continuing education would be related to all learning situations that influence the professional and personal development of the teacher with pre-initial training, outside the professional environment and extending to all the experiences of the teacher's life. “Where there is life, there is unfinished.” (Freire 1997: 55)³.

Integral continuing education

In discussing continuing education, Moreto (2002) treats continuing education with a broader scope. The “[...] use of the term continuous education has the fundamental meaning of the content of which education consists in helping professionals to participate actively in the world around them, incorporating such experience in the whole of the knowledge of their profession.” (MORETO, 2002, p.10)⁴.

For Castro and Amorim (2015), there is a fluctuating oscillation of conceptual order about continuing education. The authors point out, however, that continuing education is not a neutral conception of formation, but identified with the emancipatory aspects of the teacher, advocating teacher and system engagement.

Continuing education includes all training opportunities that interfere with vocational training. In other words, those that precede the profession, such as pupil experience and initial formation (TARDIF, 2002), the continuous formation systematized and offered by the educational systems (ALARCÃO, 1998), and the continued formation produced in the psychosocial context of the school (NÓVOA, 2002). Continuing education also encompasses the interactions with the cultural universe that the teacher establishes, related or not to his profession, but that interfere in the construction of his identity and that impact directly or indirectly in his practice.

Compared to continuing education, continuing education has a broader dimension, dealing with integral teacher education not only as a professional practice but as a social practice.

Chart 4

Synthesis of concepts of continuing education

Source: Elaborated by the authors based on bibliographic data.

Chart 4 analysis indicates that the three variations on the concept of continuing education are divided into breadth and modality. Field 1 reveals a continuous formation with legal bases and that is made possible by actions of the systems, networks and educational institutions in different modalities, as programs, study meetings, lectures, etc. The training is aimed at the professional because of their function and with the clear purpose of interfering in their practice. There is definite intentionality, either to offer specific knowledge to enable it to practice, or to perfect its practice. Thus, it presents normative content.

Fields 2 and 3 seek to fulfil the proposition of Nóvoa (2002), in which the core of the formation is not to understand how to form the teacher, but how it is formed. In this sense, these conceptual lines, which basically vary in scope, will problematize the formation itself. The purpose is to understand and value the teaching knowledges (TARDIF, 2002) with the purpose of feeding and interfering in public policies on professional valorization, training and continuing education. The ultimate goal is also to interfere in practice, however, with another efficacy and with a social bias inherent in the role of teacher and school.

Relations between epistemology and practice in the field of in-service training

Based on the analysis of the conceptual lines on continuing education, and based on the Alarcão (1988) approach, we delimit the in-service training of all the learning situations offered by the systems, networks and educational institutions for the professional, due to their practice analysis should consider levels of compromise with the other logic of continuing education.

On continuing education in service, Zeichner (2008) alludes to a fundamental tension called the dissociation between academic training and practical training or between theoretical rationality and practical rationality. One related to academic knowledge and the other to practical knowledge.

Salles (2015), following the same line of Zeichner (2008), calls theoretical rationality (from theory to practice) the formations represented by theories of recycling, training and training, whose bases are in the external and theoretical notion of knowledge that the teacher should know how to improve their practice (Chart 1 and Field 1 of Chart 4). On the other hand, Salles (2015) calls practical rationality (from practice to theory), conceptions based on training from the perspective of the subject. That is, valuing practice as a point of analysis for training (Chart 2 and Field 2 of Chart 4).

Marcelo (2009) discusses and problematizes a certain normalization of practice and experience. The author calls the idea that the number of experiences maintains an arithmetical relation with the amount of formation and production of knowledge. It would all depend on the quality of experience you have.

The teacher is not an abstract being; it is not an idea of ​​a teacher. On the contrary, it is to be concrete, with identity and eminently social (GATTI, 2003). In a group, he shares his culture, from which his knowledge and his attitudes emerge from the demands of school reality. “It follows that the notion that the increase and improvement of the informational knowledge acquired individually is sufficient to improve or modify concepts and practices related to the professional work of teachers” (GATTI, 2003, p.6)⁵.

According to Gatti (2003), training programs only show effectiveness when they consider the socio-psychological and cultural conditions of the people, managing to create mobilization of attitudes. “What needs to be achieved is an integration into the living and working environment of those who will participate in the training process.” (GATTI, 2003, p.7)⁶.

Similarly, Tardif (2002) points to a formation that is based on an ideal teacher, who denies the legitimacy of the knowledge constituted in the act of doing and in the practical demands of the school, where effectively these knowledges are produced. “Researchers are more interested in what teachers should be, know or do, than what they are, know and can do.” (TARDIF, 2002, p. 259)⁷.

Tardif (2002), studies what he calls the epistemology of professional practice. This is not a concept, but a kind of vector to guide the research on the set of knowledge that the professional mobilizes in his place of work to carry out all his tasks. According to Tardif (2000), teaching is not an object to be contemplated, but an activity that, when developed in practice, produces knowledge and knowledge of the epistemology of practice. Therefore, it cannot be normative.

According to Nóvoa (2015), teacher training privileges the school “[...] as the place of teacher training, as the space of shared analysis of practices, as a routine of monitoring, supervision and reflection on the teacher work.” (NÓVOA, 2015, p.7)⁸. He proposes that the production of individual knowledge of teachers be transformed into shared knowledge reworked and transformed into collective knowledge.

Nóvoa (2015) points to a reference of teacher knowledge that abandons the saturation of the term competence and migrates to the terminology provision. This other one has less rigid or more liquid characteristics and pretension of a directed look at the connections between the personal and professional dimensions in the teachers' indemnity production.

[...] teachers are not only consumers but also producers of teaching materials; that teachers are not only executors but also creators and inventors of pedagogical tools; that teachers are not only technical but also critical and reflective professionals. (NÒVOA, 2002, p. 36)⁹.

There is a need to investigate aspects of teacher identity. It is not the definition of competences, but the search to understand who this professional is, how he is constituted and what are the common determinants of his identity that guide his choices (MARCELO, 2009).

From an indemnity perspective, it is sought to study, understand and expect determined professional conduct of teachers, “[...], but not because they adopt prescribed professional characteristics (knowledge and attitudes). Teachers differentiate themselves according to the importance they give to these characteristics, developing their own response to the context.” (MARCELO, 2009, p 114)¹⁰.

Alarcão (1998) adjective as a commonplace is the affirmation that continuing education should focus on the teacher, giving the teacher the role of subject and not object. Thus, it is tacit in stating that any formation that disregards experience and professional reality will inevitably be devoid of meaning for this subject.

Like the other authors, Estrela (2001) also sees the teaching practice as the core and food of formation. For the author, the teacher is the subject of his training, and she also points out organizational cultures as determinants of professional behavior. Cultures guide actions as they guide choices. The way in which work environments are organized, impact on the training of professionals in three instances: instrumental, which refers to the choice of techniques; regulatory body, which refers to standards; and directive instance, which refers to the orientation of values ​​and purposes.

To implement changes in an organization, there is a demand to understand that changes are only allowed when subjects feel they control the process, feeling involved and responsible for the success of the proposal. On the contrary, they are faced with an internal negation, contrary to the laws, norms and impositions, thus making the success of any change unfeasible (ESTRELA, 2001).

This factor would explain both the aspects of the inefficiency of the formations, and the schools do not assume the autonomy that grants them the legislation. "To change one must want or feel a desire to change, or at least change must take on meaning for those to whom change is imposed or proposed” (ESTRELA, 2001, p. 57).¹¹

Vaillant and Marcelo (2012), when discussing the theme of learning in organizations, point out that the problematization between training and work environment “[...] is a widely assumed discourse in the educational field [...] is a discourse which is assumed by researchers, trainers, teachers and even by the educational administration” (VAILLANT, MARCELO, 2012, page 48)¹².

Organizations - in this regard, schools - are organized in the way they define organizational culture, a form of doing that is cultivated and perpetuated. This culture provokes informal learning that is efficient and that builds the environment as a locus of formation.

Marcelo (2009), in Schön's perspective, explains three dimensions of knowledge that feedbacks themselves: a) knowledge in practice: that produced in the act of doing. The moment of the interactions with the reality of teachers who demand positions and choices in the school environment, facing challenges and mobilizing knowledge. The initial point, because it is in practice; b) the knowledge of the practice: the one who feeds on the practice and reflects on it. It has the practice as its object; therefore, it is posterior to it; c) knowledge for practice: product of analysis and reflection on practice formulates theses and interferes, while theory, in practice, precedes the new practice.

They are distinct but interconnected dimensions, with mutual influence and significant roles. The three insights have a Kantian, conciliatory role in establishing a dialectical relationship between the three fields of knowledge.

Chart 5

Convergent points in the discussion between theory and practice.

Source: Elaborated by the authors based on bibliographic review.

Despite the level of deepening in the analyzed conceptual lines, the analysis of Chart 5 indicates that there is a high standard of alignment between the propositions about the relation between theory and practice in the continuous formation.

The point of convergence is that the place of practice is where professional knowledge is produced and where the training takes place. It is therefore imperative to know and understand the psychosocial aspects that constitute the teacher identity to think about continuing education.

Taken together, the conceptual lines of continuing education contain two central criticisms. In the first, what Marcelo (2009) points out as a myth of practice, which refers to a practice that is not reflected and dissociated from the epistemological field. An alert directed at another eventual formation extreme, one that does not consider the epistemological question as an element of fundamental dialogue for practice, pointing to a self-sufficient practice that would be alienated from reflections marked out by academically constructed knowledge through research.

The second critique is about the purely instrumental aspect of continuing training centered on terms such as training, training, updating and recycling, which translate a failure look at initial training. There would be an implicit assumption that training is based on gaps to be filled. The knowledge which the initial formation failed to teach should be taught. Or the professional is idealized as an abstract being, with skills also idealized. In both cases, we have the inverse of the first criticism. Here, epistemology is alien to the knowledge of the practice.

As can be seen in Chart 5, Nóvoa (2002) understands teachers as producers and not consumers of knowledge. This is also a valid proposition as an investigative parameter for school managers.

Managers initial training

From the point of view of federal legislation, according to Rodrigues et al. (2016), except in the current National Education Plan, which indicates the need to develop training programs for school directors and managers, there is no objective reference to the specific continuing training of managers as a professional right and public power duty. Only the LDB 1996 addresses the issue, however, in a generic way:

Art. 64. The training of educational professionals for administration, planning, inspection, supervision and educational guidance for primary education shall be carried out in undergraduate courses in pedagogy or postgraduate level, at the discretion of the educational institution, guaranteed, in this formation, the national common base (BRASIL, 1996)¹³.

Regarding the article previously mentioned 64 of LBD 9394/96, which calls for a mixed formation of pedagogues and school administrators, Franco (2017) draws attention to criticisms from important educational researchers, among them Selma Garrido and José Carlos Libâneo, about this university curricular organization.

They emphasized the misconception of the excessive valorization of the certification process, leaving aside a better qualification and emphasizing mainly the logic of the development of more workable capacities than the intellectual, political and scientific ones (FRANCO, 2017, p.104)¹⁴.

In a study about the aspects of managerial training in pedagogy courses, Franco (2017) groups several curricular components and observes that the formative process presents itself in a reductionist way and not integrated to the course as a whole, disregarding implications in supported professional competences in autonomy, emancipation and criticality.

[...]the case of management, is the result of a combination of several factors, among which: reduced workload; predominantly in the final periods of the course; a shortage of disciplines that contemplate the different aspects of management and professionalism of managers in different offices, among others (FRANCO, 2017, p. 116)¹⁵.

In the current pedagogy courses, there is a marked tendency in the curriculum to approximate business elements as well as the impregnation of the logic of economics, committed to the rationalization of educational work and control through statistical indicators, which deny political and emancipatory schools (FRANCO, 2017).

School manager in-service training programs

Although the common belief that school does not change is common sense, perhaps this statement refers more sharply to object and subject relations between student and learning. But, effectively, the school undergoes changes that reflect changes in their society.

According to Leite and Lima (2016), the complex scenario in which the school is inserted today problematizes the profile of the school manager in front of a highlighted, connected, diverse environment that requires proof of efficiency through statistical evaluations, guaranteeing the educational actors’ participation. “However, it is relevant to ask how the preparation of managers is being carried out and under what working conditions? What policies are on the agenda of priorities and what concrete conditions exist to carry them out?” (LEITE, LIMA, 2016, p.191)¹⁶.

The school organizational environment at the moment is unstable and requires managers to have complex competencies. “The responsibilities and role of managers change frequently and unpredictably. Leadership depends on the interests and goals defined by each new socio-educational policy, each project and each of the goals sought and vice versa.” (LEITE; LIMA, 2016, p. 189)¹⁷.

In this way, educational public policies have come to emphasize the figure of the manager of the primary school, of the systems and networks of education, as well as universities and institutions of higher education, as a key element for the improvement of the quality of education around the world. (LEITE; LIMA, 2016, p. 168)¹⁸.

At the end of the 1990s, Machado (2000) had the same concern when reporting that the System of Assessment of Basic Education (SAEB), when dealing with the relationship between management and school performance of students, indicated that the best performances achieved by students “[...] they are observed in schools that exercise direct control over their resources, which have active advice, pedagogical coordination, teams with positive expectations about the students and that keep the parents informed about the results.” (MACHADO, 2000, p. 1002).¹⁹

Analyzing the learning outcomes of the students, several national and international surveys show that the school makes a difference, that is, that the effectiveness of its results is associated with its institutional identity, which includes the management pattern, knowing: its form of administrative and pedagogical organization, relationships among agents, shared vision development, expectations of successful performance, learning environment, good classroom practice, accountability for the learning outcomes of their students and the presence of strong and legitimate leadership. (MACHADO, 2000, p. 1000).²⁰

It can be observed that, among other initiatives, two programs have been more prominent in the last decades, which are succeeding and are destined to the training of school managers: the PROGESTÃO and the School Program of Managers of Basic Education, the latter still in operation.

After literature review, Franco (2017), Gomes, Santos and Melo (2009), Leite and Lima (2015), Machado (2000), Ogawa and Filipak (2013), and Rodrigues et al. (2016), also in documentary analysis of the objectives, content and methodology of the two mentioned programs, we conclude:

Two problems stand out: content and method. The content, on account of the proletarianization of the management and towards the rationalization of the practice, that consequently promotes the estrangement of the school manager to the social function of the school. It does not occur the strengthening of grounds for political, critical and intentional action of the manager against the emancipatory demand of the public school, admittedly legitimate, democratic and inseparable from the concept of school management.

Regarding the method, the programs of formation and service, despite diverse methodological tests, assume a normative and prescriptive discourse. This discourse is manifested by traditional terms such as training and training, inspired by the assumption of the managers' lack of capacity to perform management tasks.

In-service training programs are highlighted by indicators that show a relationship between the good performance of schools and the characteristics of school management. This factor, associated with the demand for quality, gives the programs an eminently instrumental identity, disseminated by a managerial identity that is observed in terms of competencies, leadership, results, effectiveness and control. In this way, neoliberal discourse is assumed.

School managers on-the-job training specific concept

Zeichner (2008) began his research from the perception that undergraduates did not question what they taught, they were only concerned with teaching. They did not question where the curriculum came from; they took care of it as a technical instrument that guided the practice without a more elaborate reflection on an ethical dimension for practice.

Very close to this persistence of technical rationality under the slogan of reflective teaching is the limitation of the reflexive process in considering teaching strategies and abilities (the means to teach oneself) and exclusion from the teachers' the purposes of education, as well as the moral and ethical aspects of teaching. Teachers are only allowed to adjust the means to achieve goals defined by other people. Education becomes merely a technical activity (ZEICHNER, 2008, p. 542).²¹

Reflection has a fundamentally political role in Zeichner (2008) because it is not restricted to technical work, linked to any formally adopted curriculum and tested by external evaluations, but in permanent criticism of why. What role does he occupy in what is done? What is your degree of awareness and intentionality about the outcome of your work?

The question posed at the beginning of the chapter in Tardif and Raymond (2000) on the problematic negotiation between self-use and self-use by others is a problem for both school managers and system managers. Try to answer it, demarcating a concept of in-service training of school managers. In this way, the formation of the school manager, as a concept, is structured by four principles that associate content and method: first, an ethical principle, which requires all educational actors to assume the emancipatory commitment of education itself (RIOS, 2011); an identity principle that conceives the educational actor, whether teacher or manager - and certainly the student - as the subject and object of his work, transforming it and transforming itself (ROLDÃO, 2007; NÓVOA, 1998; TARDIF, 2002; MARCELO, 2009); a principle of collective learning, promoted by the work environment, which is established by collective relations and that determine the school culture (ESTRELA, 2001; VAILLANT; MARCELO, 2012); and finally a principle of reflection on knowledge in practice and on practice and practice (SCHÖN, 1997), the latter being that which gives meaning and cohesion to the other three.

Final remarks

School Management is a unique practice of administration because the school management, inscribed in the educational act as the pedagogy, feeds from several conceptual sources.

The concept of school management has two inseparable dimensions: technical and political. The first is universal because it is part of the field of administration as a science that studies and instrumentalizes the mediation between the objectives and results of an organization. While the other is specific because it is aimed at the specificity of the school space, where, due to legal and ethical principle, no mediation other than democratic mediation is allowed, which promotes, in the process, the collective experience and learning about sharing the power.

The concept of school management, therefore, implies the ability of the manager to research and build with the school community, democratically and autonomously, the understanding about the social function of the school, the reason for schooling and in what quality it translates. It is intended to have a political and intentional positioning that manifests itself in objectives and methods, implying in the domain of the technical/instrumental capacities to manage this process.

Considering the specificities of school management, it is understood the professional training in service also with its characteristics. In this way, they are constituted in:

Learning situations offered by systems, networks and educational institutions for the school manager, due to their management practice, considering the promotion of their critical and collective understanding about the social function of the school, and their attributions in this task, in the political and technical field, through a reflexive methodology that provides conditions and promotion to the reflected practice of the school manager in a permanent critical investigation of his own epistemic production and the other epistemic productions that derive from the management practice.

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