According to the FAO/IAEA database, over 61% of mutants have been released in Asia. Specifically, regarding rice, 35.42% of the mutants were released in Asia. China, Japan, and India are the three countries responsible for releasing the largest number of mutants worldwide, with the goal of increasing genetic variability and promoting food security.

In China, mutation induction strategies have played a significant role in plant breeding for over 60 years. China has officially released 825 mutant cultivars, encompassing 47 agricultural and ornamental species, covering an annual area of nine million hectares. This production increase amounts to over 1.5 million tons annually, with an estimated value of USD 500 million [25]. To date, the FAO/IAEA database has recorded a total of 296 mutant rice varieties, which have been released with superior characteristics such as semi-dwarf stature, early maturity, high yield, disease resistance/tolerance, improved grain quality, and other agronomic traits.

In India, the world’s first mutant variety of cotton (Gossypium sp.) was released in 1948. Named ‘M.A.9,’ it was induced through X-rays and developed with tolerance to water stress [6,26,48].

The technique of mutation induction in plants has significantly contributed to India’s food self-sufficiency and economic growth, particularly in the production of rice, peanuts, chickpeas, beans, cotton, barley, castor, and flowers/ornamentals. As of early 2024, India has approved and/or released a total of 346 mutant cultivars belonging to over 57 plant species [12]. This includes the first induced mutant variety of peanuts, ‘TG 1,’ developed using X-ray irradiation (750 Gy) in 1973. The main improved attributes of the mutant variety include increased seed size, maturity in 135 days, high oil content (47- 48%), and resistance to Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). Following this success, 15 other Trombay (TG) peanut varieties were developed, characterized by large seeds, early maturity, and high yield.

In Japan, genetic improvement through mutation induction began in the 1960s. Techniques employed included primarily X-rays, gamma rays, ion beams, chemical agents, and in vitro culture (somaclonal variation) [5]. As a result, over 500 mutant varieties have been released, spanning more than 79 cultivar species, with approximately 46% of these being rice cultivars, according to the IAEA database [12]. The first rice cultivar was registered in 1966.

In Europe, the introduction of mutation induction techniques has played a significant role in plant breeding programs, especially for barley, wheat, maize, soybean, tobacco, ornamental species, and vegetable cultivars. This effort has resulted in the release of 960 mutant varieties across different countries [12,27,28]. Among European countries, the Russian Federation, Netherlands, and Germany stand out for employing mutation induction methods extensively, being responsible for over 58% of the released varieties.

In the Russian Federation, induced mutation began in the 1960s. Mutation induction has led to the release of 216 mutant varieties across more than 35 crop species [12]. The first mutant developed using gamma irradiation was ‘Universal I’ (Glycine max L.), officially approved in 1965. This variety was developed specifically for high yield (exceeding the initial variety by 500 kg/ha in grain yield), resistance to lodging, and suitability for both grain production and green fodder [29].

In Germany, mutation induction in barley cultivation (Hordeum vulgare L.) has been notably successful. A total of 66 mutant barley cultivars have been approved and/ or released, including the cultivar ‘Nadja,’ officially approved in 1975, and the mutant variety ‘Trumpf.’ These varieties were developed through hybridization with the mutant ‘Diamant,’ obtained by irradiating seeds with X-rays (100 Gy). The main improved attributes of the mutant variety include short stature, lodging resistance, resistance to mildew, stripe rust, leaf rust, superior brewing quality, high malt quality, and high yield, surpassing that of ‘Diamant.’ Over 33% of the barley cultivation area has been occupied by this mutant variety [30]. The ‘Trumpf’ mutant has become incorporated into many barley cultivar breeding programs across numerous countries worldwide [21].

The African continent is known as the center of origin for several economically important cereals such as sorghum, millet, and African rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud). Mutation induction has also been successfully applied in Egypt, resulting in the introduction of two mutant varieties of dwarf stature (‘semi-dwarf’)—’Giza 176’ (1989) and ‘Sakha 101’ (1997)—yielding 3.8 t ha-1 and 8.9 t ha-1, respectively [31,32].

In the 1990s, five high-yielding varieties of sesame were released/introduced. Another significant economic success was the development of two mutant varieties of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), which were released in 2011. These varieties exhibited high yields and resistance to diseases such as leaf spot and rust, contributing to increased income for growers in the country. The variety ‘Inhas 10’ was cultivated through pedigree selection and crossing between the best mutants and the local variety ‘Giza 1.’ An area of 10,000 hectares was planted with this sesame variety, with its commercial value estimated at around 2,996 Egyptian pounds per Fadden.

In Sudan, mutation induction methods were initiated around 25 years ago across various cultivars with the aim of increasing the productivity of several crops, including cotton, banana, tomato, sugarcane, sesame, peanuts, and cereals. These efforts were undertaken under different environmental conditions to ensure sustainable food security. The development of the mutant banana cultivar ‘Albeely’ was significant, showing a yield increase of over 30% and high fruit quality. It was officially approved in 2007 [33,12]. Another mutant, ‘Tafra-1,’ incorporated into the rainfed peanut breeding program, was released in 2018 for Sudanese farmers in water-stressed areas. This innovation improved their livelihoods and contributed to an increase in the country’s economy and exports [34].

In the 1990s, Ghana began applying induced mutation breeding methods, leading to the development of the mutant variety of cassava (Manihot esculenta L. Crantz) called ‘Tekbankye.’ This variety exhibited resistance to African Cassava Mosaic Virus (ACMV), high dry matter content (40%), good cooking quality, and vigorous growth. It was developed through irradiation with gamma rays (25Gy) and was officially approved in 1997 [35,12].

In North America, a total of 211 mutant varieties have been developed. According to the FAO/IAEA database (2025), over 65% of these mutants were developed in the United States, including the first semi-dwarf rice variety Calrose 76, which was officially approved in 1977 in California. It was developed through seed irradiation with gamma rays (250 Gy). The primary improved attribute of this mutant variety was its reduced height (95 cm) compared to the original Calrose cultivar, which had a height of 120 cm.

The discovery of the Sd1 gene responsible for semi-dwarf stature in rice led to its transfer through crosses with other varieties, resulting in the development of 25 new semi-dwarf rice cultivars. Thirteen were developed in California, ten in Australia, and two in Egypt [36]. The United States is one of the leading countries in utilizing mutation induction techniques, achieving notable successes [26]. Canada and Mexico also stand out for their extensive registration of mutant varieties, emphasizing agricultural economics and ensuring food security.

In Argentina, mutation induction has a long-standing tradition in crop improvement, primarily conducted at the “Ewald A. Favret” Institute of Genetics. Both chemical and physical mutagenesis have been pivotal in enhancing crop productivity [27,38]. A notable example is the mutant peanut variety Colorado, developed by irradiating seeds with X-rays (200 Gy). This variety exhibited significant increases in yield, fruit number, resistance to Cercospora spp., and oil content. Following its official approval, Colorado became a major success, occupying over 20% of the peanut-growing area in Argentina (approximately 30,000 hectares) during the 1970s [7,30].

The mutant variety ‘Puita INTA-CL,’ released in 2005, with high yield and herbicide resistance, occupied more than 15% of the rice cultivation area in Argentina. Furthermore, this variety was cultivated in several Latin American countries where weeds and red rice are problematic, such as Brazil, Honduras, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Uruguay, Colombia, Panama, and Nicaragua. This dissemination significantly contributed to food security in these countries [26].

In Cuba, the application of nuclear methods began in the 1970s, focusing on mutation induction, which achieved numerous successes. This resulted in the development of four tomato cultivars (Solanum lycopersicum L.), four sugarcane varieties (Saccharum spp.), three soybean varieties (Glycine max Merrill), three hibiscus varieties (Hibiscus sp.), and nine rice varieties (Oryza sativa L.). Notably, the first mutant rice variety ‘GINES’ was released in 2007, developed through in vitro mutagenesis using proton radiation. Another significant rice variety, ‘LP7,’ officially launched in 1997, demonstrated high yield and performed well under saline stress conditions [39]. In 2007, Cuba also introduced the first mutant tomato variety ‘Maybel,’ which exhibited superior performance in drought conditions. It was introduced and cultivated in rural areas across different provinces of Cuba [40].

In Peru, genetic improvement through mutation began in the 1970s with notable successes using mutagenic agents to develop improved barley varieties, one of the most important cereals in terms of area cultivation in Peru. In 1995, the first mutant barley variety (Hordeum vulgare) ‘UNA-La Molina 95’ was released, developed through seed irradiation with gamma rays (300 Gy). This mutant was characterized by its higher protein content, dwarf stature, and early maturation [12]. In 2006, a second barley variety called ‘Centenário’ was released and cultivated in the highlands of Peru, up to 5000 meters above sea level, significantly contributing to food security [41]. Mutation induction has also been applied to older crops in the Andean region and native Peruvian crops such as kiwicha (Amaranthus sp. L.). This variety, officially approved in 2006, was developed through seed irradiation with gamma rays (400 Gy), demonstrating high yield, improved grain color and size, broad adaptability, and salinity tolerance.

In Brazil, a total of 16 varieties have been obtained through induced mutation, including four varieties of rice, five of beans, four of ornamentals, two of wheat, and one of citrus (Table 2). The first mutant variety of a wheat cultivar (Triticum aestivum L.) was successful. In 1974, the mutant variety IAS 63 was officially approved. It was developed through hybridization, combining two mutants generated by gamma radiation (at doses between 100-300 Gy) applied to the seeds. Its distinctive characteristics include a high yield of approximately 19%, resistance to grain shattering, and increased resistance to stem rust [42,12]. Brazil is positioned as the largest producer and consumer of rice outside of Asia. It has four mutant cultivars registered in the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) database (FAO/IAEA). Among these, IRAT 177 stands out, officially approved in 1988. This variety is a spontaneously mutated selection from the variety IRAT 79, obtained through seed irradiation with gamma rays (250-300 Gy). One of the key improved attributes of this mutant cultivar is increased tillering [43]. Another mutant cultivar, SCS114 Andosan, was officially approved in 2005. It was developed through seed irradiation with gamma rays (150 Gy). Its primary improved attributes include increased yield, early maturity, and improved grain quality [44]. The rice cultivar SCS118 Marques, obtained through gamma irradiation from the SCSBRS Tio Taka cultivar, was officially approved in 2013. SCS118 Marques features modern architecture, lodging resistance, a late maturation cycle, moderate resistance to blast disease, high yield potential, long grains, and very high cooking quality [45]. Another mutant cultivar is SCS121 CL, which incorporates second-generation Clearfield technology with resistance to imidazolinone herbicides. This cultivar also features a modern plant type, lodging resistance, a late maturation cycle, high yield potential, long grains, and good cooking quality, and it was officially approved in 2014 [6]. The use of mutant cultivars has immensely contributed to increasing productivity and promoting economic growth worldwide. In Brazil, however, plant improvement through mutation remains relatively insignificant, accounting for only 0.47% of the cultivars released and registered by FAO/IAEA [12].

TABLE 2. Genotypes obtained through induced mutations in Brazil (March 8, 2025, FAO/IAEA MVD)

TABLE 2 TABLE 2 Genotypes obtained through induced mutations in Brazil (March 8, 2025, FAO/IAEA MVD) TABLE 2 Genotypes obtained through induced mutations in Brazil (March 8, 2025, FAO/IAEA MVD)