Masculinity is a concept that refers to the external cultural or social standards that sanction a man's actions in a particular place or time ³³. It is a sociocultural construction composed of beliefs, traits and behaviors that are considered important for being a man and that support the maintenance of dominance and power over others ³⁴.

According to the review by Patró-Hernández et al.³⁵ on the relationship between gender norms and alcohol consumption, it is noted that traditional gender stereotypes are present in situations of alcohol consumption and that excessive alcohol consumption, aggressiveness and risk behaviors are associated with male roles. Likewise, alcohol consumption and intoxication have long been associated with masculinity. Furthermore, this type of behavior in men works to affirm masculinity and increase bonds and solidarity between them ²².

In this regard, Leone and Parrot ³⁶ assert that men may feel pressured to adhere to manly norms they proscribe, and alcohol intoxication probably facilitates their attention to these signals, which strengthens this association. An example of this is the study by Dumbili et al. ³⁷, in which men agreed that drinking is for social reasons, and for other reasons such as engaging in sexual negotiations, displaying masculinity, and obtaining social attention. It is important to note that male identity is performatively constituted and that men are only as masculine as their last display of manhood ³⁸.

On the other hand, alcohol consumption has always been related to masculinity as a "male domain" in society ³⁹. This stereotype has been reinforced by traditional views, where drinking is associated with masculinity and abstention with femininity ⁴⁰. This association has also led to a significant interaction between antifemininity and excessive alcohol consumption ³⁶. In some cases, male identity is constructed through the role of protector of women, which involves a discussion of physical strength ⁴¹. However, this stereotype has also been associated with greater odds of insulting, humiliating, and attacking others while intoxicated in both men and women. Additionally, higher levels of masculinity have been linked to greater odds of being involved in alcohol-related assaults and antisocial behaviors ⁴².

Alcohol consumption culture in men is a topic that has been widely studied. Public leisure contexts have been found to be sites where masculinity is (re)produced and the ability to consume large quantities of alcohol without showing signs of intoxication is a significant social achievement, determining status in male hierarchies ⁴⁰. These alcohol consumption patterns in men are a reflection of existing gender stereotypes, as pointed out by Lobjova ⁴³. Gender stereotype support can be seen in the way men relate to alcohol and how they are encouraged to drink in party contexts. Under these conditions, men are often encouraged to consume alcohol in large quantities, and those who do not may be questioned about their masculinity by their peers ⁴⁴.

In addition to the above, when men are challenged in their ability to drink large amounts of alcohol, they feel obligated to demonstrate to their peers that they are "real men", who can tolerate excessive alcohol consumption without becoming intoxicated. Therefore, for members of the male social network, it is mandatory to consume alcohol and participate in the social (reproduction of masculinity every time they meet for entertainment ⁴⁰.

On the other hand, non-drinking men may be at risk of being excluded from their own friendship groups ⁴⁵. Consequences for non-drinkers are real and can include exclusion, social isolation, or even verbal abuse and physical harassment ^46,47. Based on the above, it can be seen that male alcohol consumption culture is problematic and has negative consequences for both drinkers and non-drinkers.

Femininity ideologies refer to the norms and restrictions that establish what is considered normal and ideal for a woman, highlighting characteristics such as passivity, conformity, and kindness ⁴⁸. Although alcohol consumption has traditionally been seen as a male activity, nowadays young women can participate in it and have greater autonomy in their consumption ^49,50. However, they still face pressure to conform to gender expectations, and alcohol consumption can help them achieve different types of traditional and non-traditional femininities ^51,52.

The relationship between women and alcohol consumption has been studied from different perspectives. One of the most interesting findings is how women frame the act of drinking alcoholic beverages, because, for many, drinking is a way to socialize, become intimate and build trust with other women, according to Nicholls ⁵³. Having a "girl's night" is an important opportunity to socialize, and some even see it as their main or only form of socialization. However, not all women actually enjoy binge drinking and some attribute this to peer pressure and expectations.

Similarly, excessive alcohol consumption by women has become an increasingly relevant issue, because it is often presented as an attempt to imitate men and transgress traditional gender roles ⁵⁴. In this regard, in studies such as that of Lobjová et al. ⁴³, it is documented that women consume alcoholic beverages to break gender stereotypes, achieve non-traditional identities and emancipate themselves from male alcohol consumption culture. However, other studies show that women who support traditional gender norms, such as sexual fidelity and domestic norms, are less likely to report excessive alcohol consumption ⁵⁵. In the United States of America, Iwamoto et al. ⁵⁶ reported that women who adhere to these norms are less likely to engage in risky behaviors related to alcohol consumption.

Furthermore, women recognize the importance of maintaining control of their drinking to achieve an appropriate "female" identity. Social norms that reinforce traditional codes of femininity prohibit women from consuming alcohol as they may expose themselves to greater health risks. For instance, some young women in Africa consume this substance secretly so as not to be seen as violating traditional codes of femininity ⁴⁰. Likewise, women also recognize the importance of mutual care as another way to build friendship and trust. For instance, on a girls' night out, friends always support and take care of each other ⁵³. This suggests that the way women perceive their gender identity also plays an important role in their relationship with alcohol.

There is a double standard regarding alcohol consumption in women since male drunkenness is accepted while female drunkenness is condemned ⁵⁷ due, in part, to imbalanced gender-specific consumption norms and social sanctions attributed to women who consume alcohol ⁵⁵. Furthermore, women who consume alcohol excessively tend to be judged as promiscuous and unfaithful, whereas men who consume this substance are perceived as sexually experienced and capable ^58-60.

This double standard reflects the way social norms and gender stereotypes influence perceptions and attitudes toward alcohol consumption. According to some studies, alcohol is seen as something good only for men, so women should not consume it ^40,61. Likewise, both young men and women perceive female drunkenness as more shocking and unacceptable than that of men, i.e., women who are seen in public in a state of intoxication are judged negatively and are given an unfavorable sexual reputation ⁶².

Alcohol consumption is commonly considered an indicator of sexual availability and interest in young women, making them more susceptible to sexual advances, although they are expected to handle these situations when intoxicated ⁶³. Evidence shows that women who consume alcohol are aware of the stereotypical risks that position them as vulnerable ⁶⁴. According to recent research, the combination of alcohol and sexualization only occurs in young women ²¹.

Furthermore, there is a culturally persistent gender double standard surrounding female intoxication, justified by discourses about women's greater vulnerability to sexual or physical assault compared to men. This leads women to consider going out to consume alcoholic beverages and being victims of lascivious looks as well as physical contact without consent in nightclubs as a common situation ⁶², which is also reflected in the perception of sexual experiences ^63,65.

Furthermore, when young women talk about their sexual experiences in the context of excessive alcohol consumption, feelings of regret prevail ⁶⁶. However, in narratives about excessive alcohol consumption, the good experiences always outweigh the bad ones ⁴³, which may make sexual violence less visible in contexts of alcohol consumption ⁶⁶.

In these circumstances, women attempt to convey an image of respectable femininity while engaging in a practice that has traditionally been framed as masculine ⁵³. However, despite these strategies, smearing still occurs when women consume alcohol excessively. In fact, young women are judged more than young men when they exhibit "inappropriate" alcohol behavior in real life as well as on social media ²¹.

The relationship between gender and alcoholic beverages is a topic that has been studied by several researchers in recent years. According to Lojdová ⁴³, in women's stories, gender stereotype confirmation is connected with the structure of alcoholic beverages, since the narratives serve to concretize traditional gender identities. In this regard, in the research carried out by Dumbili ⁴⁰, men consider women to be vulnerable, which is why they recommend wine and other sugary/flavored brands described as less "strong" for women.

Regarding alcoholic beverages appropriate for women, those perceived as sweetened or "light" are believed to be more appropriate ⁴⁰. Nicholls ⁵³ points out that several participants associate beer with masculinity, whereas the supposedly most "feminine" drinks, such as cocktails and wine, are also considered more "elegant," "luxurious," and "less clunky" than beer. Additionally, women are expected to consume alcohol in small, dainty glasses, as the emphasis is placed more on how a drink looks and feels than on the taste itself. Hence, certain drinks can function as "accessories" in social contexts and become identity signals driven by consumption ^67,68. This happens, in part, because women who adhere to appearance norms are more aware of how others view them and therefore place more emphasis on integrating with their peers and obtaining social attention ⁴⁰.

Unfortunately, during youth, when excessive alcohol consumption is most normative by peers, social pressure to attract and maintain social relationships has continually exposed young women to media images of unrealistic standards of physical appearance ⁵⁶. According to Hussman and Goldstein ⁵⁵, the ideal of a thin body and social relationships is associated with an increase in alcohol consumption. Additionally, women appear to be much more aware than men of how they are represented online, as suggested by Lennoxx et al. ⁶², and they spend time and effort ensuring that their virtual identity projects the image they want to show to others. This may include carefully editing and curating the photos they share on social media, as well as updating their profiles and managing their online presence.

The discourse of alcohol consumption on social media is more than just a social practice, as this is reflected in people's behavior in public spaces, influenced by awareness of how this is represented on social media ⁶². This is expressed by Belova and Fadeeva ⁶⁹⁾ when representing a series of sociocultural meanings that include social normativity, accessibility, daily routine, normalization, sacredness, sociocultural integration, and orientation towards stereotypes. However, the discourse also reflects a gender double standard around appearance and alcohol consumption ⁷⁰.

Because of this, some young women have found specific ways to present a fun and "up to par" online identity without compromising their respectability, as described by Lenoxx et al. ⁶². Unfortunately, young women continue to experience significant stress when expressing their "alcoholic femininities" both in public and online. In other words, they minimize the appearance of drunkenness to (un)known audiences and walk a fine line to comply with acceptable femininities under the predominant patriarchal regime ⁵⁷.