1. Introduction

Globally, fruits and vegetables production have increased in recent years due to their increased consumption in the human diet. Dietary guidelines around the world recommend the increased consumption of these foods as good sources of antioxidant phytochemicals for the prevention of chronic diseases. Therefore, there has been an increasing demand for fresh fruits and vegetables because of its health benefits (Vidovic et al., 2022). Fruits and vegetables are rich in nutrients associated with a beneficial effect on human health. While the fresh-cut vegetable industries have consolidated their position in both food service and retail markets, fresh-cut fruit processors are still trying to develop products that attract consumers’ interest because of their fresh-like quality (Medina-Jaramillo et al., 2020).

The FAO has estimated that around 1.3 billion tons per year of edible parts from foods destined for human consumption are discarded and wasted worldwide. One of the main food wastes come from fruit and vegetables, representing 0.5 billion tons per year, with respect to the total waste (Hamed et al., 2022). The losses can occur at five different stages, preharvest, postharvest, processing, distribution and consumption. In developing countries, 9 to 18% of the losses occur in the agriculture manipulation and processing industry because of the lack of infrastructure and inappropriate handling operations. Poor storage and processing facilities and lack of infrastructure are among the main causes for that situation. However, in developed countries, the major losses occur at the last stages as a result of retail and consumer requirements, demanding high-quality products and rejecting products with ugly appearance. In this case, the generation of Fruits and Vegetables Waste (FVW) is closely related to the demanding food quality standards set by retailers and requested by consumers. In this context, the losses arising from fruits and vegetables (peel fractions, pulps, pomace, seeds) represent ∼16% of total food waste and contribute ∼6% to global greenhouse gas emissions at a worldwide level both in developed and developing countries (Kumar et al., 2017; Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022).

The shelf life of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are dramatically reduced by the removal of the protective skin as well as by the deleterious effects of cutting and handling operations (Bambace et al., 2021), leading to important economic losses. In addition, as fruits and vegetables are fresh products, the advance of maturation or senescence limits their shelf life being discarded, because they do not have the quality required for consumption. Besides, as many of them are seasonal products with a very short production and marketing cycle (2–3 months), producers mainly use their harvest for fresh commercialization at the local level (Kumar et al., 2017). This generates high amounts of residues due to their perishability and market saturation in times of production. In this way, the losses of fruits and vegetables are high, especially in developing countries, where innovation can play a key role to overcome this problem. The diversity of fruits and vegetables in several developing countries and the excess of certain fruits or vegetables in the months of greatest production offer unique opportunities for adding value to these wastes (co-products), that can be transformed into valuable inputs for the development of innovative products (production of diverse sustainable biomaterials, energy, high-value products). In particular, peels, pulps, pomaces and seed fractions of fruit and vegetables can be suitable raw materials for the recovery of different bioactive compounds, including fiber, polyphenols and pigments (Sagar et al., 2018; Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022). Recent years have seen progress in the research on the content of polyphenolic compounds and pigments in fruit and vegetable processing by-products, extracting these bioactive compounds and dietary fibers and studying their impact on the human body. This is due to the growing interest in an active and healthy lifestyle and the resulting increased market demand for natural foods. The wastes obtained from fruit and vegetables have plenty of valuable components, known as bioactive compounds, with many properties that could positively affect human health (Rodríguez García and Raghavan, 2022).

During the processing of fruits and vegetables, a wide range of by-products is generated, including a significant quantity of waste, for example in the juice industry. This waste includes leaves, peels, unwanted pulp, seeds, cull fruits, and stones ('Aqilah et al., 2023), which contain high levels of bioactive substances such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, and pectin) and proteins (Jayanthi Antonisamy et al., 2023). Numerous studies have identified a variety of bioactive substances in fruit and vegetable by-products (FVBP)—including vitamin C and phytochemical compounds, such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and phenolic acids (Cassani et al., 2022). Some bioactive compounds present antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. Therefore, the use of fruit and vegetable waste is studied to obtain bioactive compounds, through non-conventional techniques, also known as green extraction techniques. These extraction techniques report higher yields, reduce the use of solvents, employ less extraction time, and improve the efficiency of the process for obtaining bioactive compounds (Rodríguez García and Raghavan, 2022). This would help limit the disposal of this valuable raw material and reduce the use of artificial food additives by replacing them with natural additives contained in pomace. Besides, over the past few years, great interest has developed in the extraction of carotenoids from wastes and agro-industrial by-products as an alternative to synthetic carotenoids (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023).

Therefore, the extraction of bioactive compounds is gaining importance in response to consumer inclination and demand for more natural products containing biological properties with health benefits (‘Aqilah et al., 2023; Jayanthi Antonisamy et al., 2023). Researchers must actively engage in recovering and revaluing crop waste by-products to develop innovations for use in the food industry. This approach can reduce food waste and create more resilient food systems. As a result, one of the goals for the food industry is to enrich their products for human consumption with substances that have functional activities that can reduce the risk of many chronic diseases. Such opportunities are specifically addressed in the development of novel functional ingredients, sustainable extraction methods applied and social impact of incorporating bioactive compounds from regional fruits and vegetables by-products for the development of novel functional food, applying innovative processes. Then, these compounds can be used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, or food industry, aimed to improve food quality and functionality (Rodriguez-Garcia and Vijaya Raghavan, 2022).

Incorporating bioactive compounds (fiber, polyphenols, pigments) obtained from local fruits and vegetables waste using sustainable processes offers several advantages; added value inputs for the formulation of food, nutraceutical and cosmetic products and also enough the development of local industries, contributing to decrease the carbon footprint associated with transportation (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022).

On the other hand, food waste has significant potential for producing edible films and coatings. Packaging made from fruit and vegetable waste is a practical solution for reducing the manufacturing costs of edible films and coatings while adding value to these products. The performance of the food packaging system can be improved through the different biological qualities of FVW, such as dietary fibers, antioxidants, and antimicrobials (Mohd Basri, et al., 2021). Extracts of FVBP that contain antioxidant properties have been utilized to create innovative functional food products that are highly sought-after and well received by consumers (Rodriguez-Garcia and Vijaya Raghavan, 2022).

Furthermore, due to their bioactive properties that offer health benefits to humans, these natural additives can also be utilized in the food, biotechnology, and pharmaceutical industries (Sorrenti et al., 2023). However, their practical application is limited by their instability when exposed to regular food processing and storage conditions, such as changes in pH, temperature, light, oxygen, and ions. To address this challenge, an encapsulation method has recently been developed to enhance the stability and water solubility of these bioactive components while protecting them from external factors (‘Aqilah et al., 2023).

Creating integrative value chains to produce functional ingredients sustainably obtained from residual food losses appears as a smart strategy to supply products with economic prices, healthy and natural bioactive ingredients, suitable for the formulation of functional foods, dietary supplements and cosmetics (Gómez and Martinez, 2018). This approach is additionally important for the creation of new job opportunities in the bio-based sector, particularly the rural and urban areas, also contributing to the diversification of rural economic activities, and to the valorization of locally generated losses and wastes. These new jobs involve the waste management and the process industry, allowing the creation of both direct and indirect works at a local level. So, the incorporation of bioactive compounds from regional fruits and vegetables by-products into novel processes could represent an important social impact. In summary, valorizing fruits and vegetables by-products will not only contribute to environmentally sustainable practices but also create dynamic and competitive regional economies, especially in developing countries and rural environments, lowering production and transportation costs (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022).

Within the scope of the Circular Economy, valorization of such wastes for the production of innovative bio-ingredients can open great market opportunities if efficiently exploited. This puts into relevance the importance of improving processing technologies for perishable products, including fruits and vegetables, and/or adding them value by applying innovation for the development of functional ingredients (Cassani et al., 2022). This approach also promotes socioeconomic development by generating new products, processes, equipment, regulations, and increasing qualified jobs (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022).

This review attempts to provide an integrative perspective on the use of FVW and its social and economic impacts. In this way, the objective of this review was to analyze the current situation of residues derived from fruits and vegetables as sources of functional ingredients (fiber, polyphenols, and pigments) suitable for incorporation into food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. In addition, a comprehensive and systematic approach addressed to includes the sustainable technologies generally used for the efficient extraction of bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetable residues.

2. Bioactive Compounds in Fruits and Vegetables Waste

The growing amount of agro-industrial waste has given rise to numerous studies aimed to analyze their bioactive compounds and potential application as ingredients and additives, for the development of innovative functional foods (Kainat et al., 2022).

The type of waste produced is generally determined by the fruit and vegetables used in each industrial process. Developing greener solvents and techniques for extracting high-value compounds is one of the principles of green chemistry and a challenge for the food industry (Viñas-Ospino, 2023). Bioactive compounds like carotenoids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids can commonly be found in tomato skin, pumpkin seeds and peel, papaya peel, and melon peel, and their presence in fruit waste provides antioxidant properties. They can serve as natural preservatives and colorants/indicators in food applications (Cassani et al., 2022).

Phenolic compounds are the most studied bioactive products coming from fruits and vegetables waste (FVW). They are usually associated with a wide range of physiological properties such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and cardioprotective effects (Esparza et al., 2020). For example, berry waste contains anthocyanins, which are responsible for their high total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, which can be affected by the solvent and extraction conditions. In this way, blackberry pomace, blueberry juice; blackberry, blueberry, and jaboticaba skin; apple peels; strawberry fruit peels; raspberry pomace; and red dragon fruit peels can all be used to extract phenolic acid and anthocyanins compounds (Kainat, 2022). Citrus trash is a rich source of phenolic compounds since citrus peels have a higher concentration of polyphenols than the edible portion of the fruit (Singh et al., 2020). Aside from citrus, the peels of other fruits have been discovered to have higher phenolic content than the edible sections. Banana pulp has an important contribution of phenolic compounds, which is only around 25% of the amount found in the peel (Khoozani et al., 2019). The same with peels of pomegranates and apple (Sagar et al., 2018). Grape skins and seeds are high in mono-, oligo-, and polymeric pro-anthocyanidins (phenolics), which are by-products of the juice and wine industries (Kainat, 2022).

In winery by-products (grape pomace, skins, stems, lees), phenolic compounds are the most abundant phytochemicals, especially standing out phenolic acids (gallic and caffeic acids), flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, quercetin derivatives and anthocyanidins), tannins (procyanidins) and stilbenes, especially trans-resveratrol (Machado and Domínguez-Perles, 2017). Apple pomace from the processing industry of apple juice, cider, jam and vinegar is rich in chlorogenic acid and gallic acid as phenolic acids, and quercetin and derivatives, catechin and procyanidins as flavonoids (Perussello et al., 2017). Lucera et al. (2018), reported that vegetable waste from broccoli and artichokes was utilized as a source of phenolic acids and flavonoids. These compounds were extracted and used to fortify cheese samples, resulting in a significant increase in antioxidant capacity. Vaz et al. (2022) investigated the waste of artichoke, red pepper, carrot, and cucumber to obtain concentrates of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other dietary fibers. Their results showed that artichoke waste had the highest concentration of phenolic compounds, while red pepper, carrot, and cucumber had much lower concentrations.

Fiber provides numerous health advantages, including lowering the risk of heart disease and diabetes. Dietary fibers are present in all layers of the onion, but in varying amounts. Solid waste from potatoes was also shown to be an excellent source of fiber. The apple peel had more dietary fiber than the pulp. Apple pomace is a waste product from the apple juice processing industry that is high in nutritional fiber. Total dietary fiber content of mango peels was determined with galactose, glucose, and arabinose being the predominant neutral sugars in both insoluble and soluble dietary fibers (Aqilah et al, 2023). García-Cayuela et al. (2019) extracted compounds like phenolic acids, flavonoids, and betalains from the whole fruit, pulp, and peel of six types of pear cultivars.

Carotenoids have important implications for human health and the food industry due to their antioxidant and functional properties. The extraction of carotenoids from wastes and agro-industrial by-products as an alternative to synthetic carotenoids (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). Their extraction is a crucial step for being able to concentrate them and potentially include them in food products. Traditionally, the extraction of carotenoids is performed using organic solvents that have toxicological effects (Kultys and Kurek, 2022). In addition to their important applications as coloring agents and preventing oxidation in many types of food, carotenoids are also recognized for playing a vital role in human health (Luzardo-Ocampo et al., 2021). Carotenoids are crucial for their antioxidant activity, intercellular communication, and immune system activity. It has been demonstrated that carotenoid-rich diets are associated with a lower incidence of cancer, cardiovascular disease, age-related macular degeneration, and cataract formation (Arunkumar et al., 2020). Lycopene is the most prevalent and well-known carotenoid, accounting for more than 85% of total carotenoids. For example, tomato peel contains five times the amount of lycopene compared to the pulp (Martins and Ferreira, 2017). Considering this, the extraction of carotenoids from a variety of fruit and vegetable by-products, which are emerging as extraordinarily rich sources of bioactive compounds, should be explored and widely employed in the food industry (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023).

3. Bioactive compounds: health benefits

Actually, consumer demand for promotional health products containing bioactive compounds is increasing. Wastes derived from fruits and vegetables have a potential beneficial effect on human health due to the presence of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, phenols, anthocyanins, and carotenoids. These beneficial effects are associated with the generation of secondary metabolites with a wide range of biological activity (Esparza, et al., 2020). In addition, bioactive compounds can interact with proteins, DNA, and other biological molecules to promote health-related beneficial effects in humans and reduce the risk of disease (Kumar et al., 2017). Bioactive compounds found in fruits and vegetables, as health-related substances, are known to reduce the risk of developing diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, cataracts, and Parkinson’s disease. These positive benefits have been related to their antioxidant and radical scavenging properties, which can delay or prevent DNA, protein, and lipid damage. Indeed, these chemicals have antibacterial properties, and they play a significant role in protecting fruits and vegetables against harmful agents by penetrating microorganisms’ cell membranes (Pisoschi et al., 2021).

Fruit and vegetable by-products (FVB) are rich nutrients compounds that contribute to bowel health, weight management, and lower blood cholesterol levels and improved control of glycemic and insulin responses. Due to the positive influence of FVB fibers and bioactive compounds during the digestion of glycemic carbohydrates, such as starch, baked goods are ideal food systems to accommodate FVB, since most of them have a high glycemic index (Gomez and Martinez, 2018). In this way, fruits and in particular berries have been the focus of recent interest among researchers and health professionals for their role in human health and prevention of chronic diseases. In recent years, several berries such as the strawberry, blueberry, cranberry, and black raspberry have been studied for their beneficial effects on health. These health benefits include prevention of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes, obesity, neurodegenerative diseases associated with aging, and infections (Esparza et al., 2020). Raspberries hold a special position among the berries due to their ideal nutritional profile of low calories, fat, and saturated fats, high fiber, presence of several essential micronutrients, and phytochemical composition. They contain a whole range of polyphenolic antioxidant compounds that play a significant role in mitigating the damaging effects of oxidative stress on cells and reducing the risk of chronic diseases. Among the polyphenolic compounds, raspberries contain significant levels of ellagitannins and anthocyanins (Bustamante et al., 2018). Therefore, berries hold an important position among the fruits attributable to their high antioxidant phytochemical contents. In addition to their attractive color and superior flavor, berries contain a unique phytochemical profile rich in ellagitannins and anthocyanins that distinguishes them from other fruits (Pap et al., 2021).

Other bioactive compounds, much less known but with very interesting properties on the health, are the glucosinolates and their degradation products, isothiocyanates. These compounds are mainly found in Brassica vegetables and their by-products (Thomas et al., 2018). These compounds have been associated with the attenuation of cardiovascular diseases and their protective effects against several types of cancer. Moreover, glucosinolates and their derivatives have different applications in agri-food industry such as antimicrobial agents, as ingredients in food functionalization, or as dietary supplements (Esparza et al., 2020).

Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their elimination by our bodies’ defense mechanisms. Our body’s antioxidant mechanisms detoxify reactive intermediates, resulting in a reduction in oxidative stress (Kim et al., 2020). For sustaining health and preventing aging and age-related disorders, there should be interaction between free radicals, antioxidants, and co-factors. Oxidative damage occurs when the production of free radicals exceeds the protective effects of antioxidants and some cofactors, resulting in aging and chronic diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, and other lifestyle diseases (Augustin et al., 2020).

4. Extraction method of valuable compounds from fruit and vegetable waste

The use of green extraction techniques conforms to the global guidelines indicated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the EU environmental policy and legislation for the period 2010–2050 for the reduction of hazardous solvents in industry (de Souza Mesquita et al., 2021). Considering agro-industrial by-products as an alternative source of bioactive compounds is one of the key points for the development of the “zero waste” industry. FVW are usually undervalued, though it is well known that those by-products often contain valuable compounds in their peels, pulps, and seeds (Satari and Karimi, 2018). These by-products contain a variety of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, essential oils, and dietary fiber, which have considerable health benefits (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023).

Bioactive and value-added compounds from fruit and vegetable by-products can be obtained using conventional extraction methods (soaking, boiling, and infiltrating) and unconventional methods (supercritical fluids, microwaves, dielectric barrier discharge plasma, high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound) (Kumar et al., 2021). The most common extraction method is the extraction of compounds from fruit and vegetable waste by soaking, boiling, heating, filtration (Sagar et al., 2018).

For a very long time, traditional extraction techniques have been utilized as classical procedures are considered customary techniques. These processes are actually based on the solvent extraction power technique, and heat is applied, or a mixture of the two (Cvjetko Bubalo et al., 2015). Soxhlet extraction is a well-known and commonly used technique for extracting valuable bioactive components from various plant sections. Maceration has gained popularity as a low-cost method of extracting bioactive chemicals and essential oils. It consists of multiple phases and is well-suited to low extraction rates. Hydro-distillation is a traditional method for extracting key oils and bioactive chemicals from plant sources (Kainat et al., 2022).

Despite being widely used, solvent extraction presents several limitations, such as long extraction times, the need for high-purity in the obtained extract, costly solvents, low or insufficient recovery yield, and the need for evaporating large volumes of solvents for recycle (Abedi et al., 2017; Ameer et al., 2017). In addition, traditional extraction methods are characterized by difficulty in obtaining high purity, the potential degradation of heat-labile chemicals, and low extraction selectivity. Its use is limited due to prolonged heating, which may lead to the thermal decomposition of valuable compounds (Esparza et al., 2020).

On the other hand, carotenoids are oil-soluble pigments and the use of oils as solvents can be an excellent alternative to replace organic solvents. The use of vegetable oils is according to the principles of a green process, because they are environmentally friendly solvents and produce an extract without contaminants (Sagar et al., 2018). One of the most important advantages of the use of oils for carotenoid extraction is that elimination of the solvent is not necessary, and the extracted compound can be included directly in final food products (Chutia and Mahanta, 2020). Additionally, oils play a role as an impediment against oxygen, retarding the oxidation time and degradation of the carotenoid extracts. There are some studies showing the use of vegetable oils as an alternative for carotenoid extraction. The most popular oils used are olive, soy, sunflower, corn, and peanut (Goula et al., 2017). Elik et al. (2020) studied the extraction of carotenoids from carrot juice wastes using flaxseed oils in microwave-assisted extraction, and they recovered a high percent of carotenoids. Goula et al. (2017) extracted carotenoids from pomegranate peels with sunflower oil and soy oil. Their results demonstrated that combining the use of green solvents with ultrasound successfully extracted dry peels using sunflower oil and soy oil, respectively. Sharma and Bhat (2021) compared the extraction of carotenoids in pumpkin peels using corn oil with that using hexane/isopropyl alcohol as a traditional solvent. The results showed that almost twice as much total carotenoid was extracted when employing a green solvent compared to that using conventional extraction.

Actually, there is an increasing tendency toward using new extraction methods or combinations of both conventional and emerging technologies (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). Novel strategies have been developed to overcome these restrictions. For the extraction process, numerous unique and emerging approaches are now being used. The combination of conventional methods with emerging techniques has revealed tremendous potential in fruit and vegetable waste processing (Mohd Basri et al., 2021).

Among these new technologies, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is one of the most widely employed for extracting many different compounds from a great variety of solid matrices and natural products. Its main advantages are the higher extraction rate and efficiency leading to the requirement of lower solvent volumes. For all these reasons, the viability of microwave-assisted extraction at full industrial scale has raised great interest (Rodriguez Garcia and Raghavan, 2022). The use of microwave treatment to extract bioactive compounds implies in direct delivery of thermal energy into the vegetable matrix, resulting in increased separation, economical technique, and higher product quality; also in faster extraction rates, shorter operating times, reduced solvent consumption, and lower energy consumption (Zin, Anucha and B´anvolgyi, 2020). Microwave-assisted extraction is a revolutionary extraction technique that incorporates both microwave and solvent extraction. The fundamental advantage of MAE over ultrasonic aided extraction and Soxhlet extraction is that plant metabolites can be extracted in less time (Vinatoru et al., 2017). For carotenoid extraction, MAE is simple, rapid technology and uses a low amount of solvents (Soquetta et al., 2018). MAE has been compared with Soxhlet extraction and, even though it has a lower extraction time, the yield is higher in the traditional extraction. In this way, Sonar & Rathod, (2020) used microwave assisted extraction conditions using water as a solvent to extract mangiferin from Mangifera indica leaves.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) constitutes also a greener and more economic strategy compared to conventional extraction methods (Barba et al., 2016). It induces a faster diffusion of solvents into cellular materials, thus improving mass transfer and disrupting cell walls, which facilitates the release of bioactive compounds. Ultrasound extraction requires lower amounts of solvents and consequently lower energy consumption. Both microwave-assisted and ultrasound-assisted extraction can be used in combination with conventional extraction systems for enhancing the separation yield (Esparza et al., 2020). Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction is a nonconventional technology that uses waves with a frequency above 10 MHz. UAE is also a non-thermal, fast, and efficient technology, but to obtain good extraction, small particle size (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). Ultrasonic waves penetrate cell membranes and facilitate the interaction with the solvent; consequently, mass transfer and bioactive compound extraction improves (Cano-Lamadrid and Artés-Hernández, 2022). Physical forces generate ultrasonic waves during cavitation, disrupt the texture of the studied substrate, and increase mass transfer, releasing extractability from the solvent (Kumar et al., 2021). When it comes to extracting bioactive components from natural sources, ultrasound-assisted extraction is thought to be a simpler and more successful method than standard extraction methods. Depending on the type of the plant material to be extracted, ultrasonic frequency has a significant impact on extraction yield (Chen et al., 2020). Kaleem et al, (2019) used an ultrasound-assisted extraction approach to extract anthocyanins and phenolic compounds from grape peel. High-intensity sound waves extract bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, polysaccharides from fruit and vegetable waste and by-products in less time, at lower temperatures and with less energy (Sani et al., 2023).

On the other hand, Supercritical fluid technology (SF) is an environment friendly technology for extracting natural products from vegetal matrices. It is rapid and efficient, though its scaling-up is more difficult than that of other techniques. It can overcome many limitations of existing extraction techniques and obtain specific bioactive compounds with temperature and pressure by solvent control (Sharma et al., 2021). The advantages of this technology are short extraction times, increased efficiency, use of safe and environmentally friendly solvents, free from solvent residues, suitable for compounds sensitive to heat, non-oxidation or degradation, and reduced costs (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). Solvents used in supercritical fluids must have good solubility and inertness to the product. It is easy to separate from the sample, inexpensive, has low critical pressure, is environmentally friendly, and carbon dioxide has a lower critical point than other solvents because of its desirable properties such as low cost, stability, and nonflammability (Molino et al., 2020). The extraction of bioactive chemicals from natural sources such as plants and food by-products are usually done using supercritical fluid extraction, which is an environmentally beneficial technology, due to it being non-explosive and nontoxic, supercritical carbon dioxide is an appealing alternative to organic solvents. Raw material is placed in an extraction container with temperature and pressure controllers to maintain the proper conditions during the extraction process. The choice of supercritical fluids is vital to the process’s success, and a wide range of chemicals can be utilized as solvents in this method (Ahmad et al., 2019). One of the most important advantages of SF extraction is allowing the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant material at low temperatures, which reduces the degradation of thermolabile compounds. Additionally, this process avoids the use of hazardous solvents. SFs have been recognized as successfully extracting carotenoids from different sources, such as the fruits, pulps, and wastes of passion fruit peach, apricot, banana (Rodriguez Garcia and Raghavan, 2022; Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). Sánchez-Camargo et al. (2019) performed the extraction of carotenoids from mango peel using CO₂ as a SF and ethanol as a co-solvent. García-Mendoza et al. (2017), who also analyzed carotenoids in mango peels.

Other emerging technologies such as pulsed electric field extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction and pressurized liquid extraction are also regarded as potential alternatives to the conventional ones. (HHP) is a method in which a compound is subjected to high hydrostatic pressure of about 100–1000 MPa (Viñas-Ospino et al., 2023). This method can shorten the pressure time, increase the extraction rate, shorten the extraction time, and improve efficiency with low energy consumption (Mao et al., 2019). HHP can increase cell permeability and secondary metabolites diffusion through high-pressure cavitation to promote the release of bioactive substances. According to Guo et al. (2019), the extraction of pectin from the peels of pomelo by HHP using ethanol has a high viscosity compared with the traditional extraction method.

Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) is a method whereby pressure is applied, causing the temperature to be higher than the normal solvent boiling point temperature (Rodriguez Garcia and Raghavan, 2022). The advantage of PLE is that it consumes less time and requires less solvent. Extraction by pressurized liquid technology uses solvents at high pressures and temperatures below the critical point to keep the solvent in a liquid state. This fact is enough to improve the stability and extraction of polar and non-polar bioactive compounds from agricultural waste and quickly extracts valuable bioactive compounds with a small amount of solvent (Sani et al., 2023).

Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) is a potential non-thermal processing technique for food analysis, especially for bioactive compounds extraction from fruits and vegetables, involving the application of repetitive high voltage pulses (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022). Such conditions promote the formation of pores on cell membranes, leading to the permeabilization of cellular tissues, facilitating the extractability of intracellular compounds, polyphenols and pigments (Andreou et al., 2020). PEF can enhance mass transfer and has already been widely used to improve the extraction of phenols, pigments and pectin from grape seed, red beetroot, and apple pomace (Cano-Lamadrid and Artés-Hernandez, 2022). Also, this method could result in antimicrobial effects, inactivating microorganisms and enhancing food safety (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022). The main advantages of pulsed electric field extractions include their high extraction yields, no-thermal treatments and low energy usage. Although the instrumentation is expensive, the use of pulsed electric fields in the food industry has been increasing in the last years since pulsed electric field-treated foods have shown acceptable maintenance of nutritional characteristics together with the improving of microbiological quality (Zhang et al., 2022).

Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE) is a pre-treatment by enzyme and is considered an eco-friendly way to extract both bioactive substances and oils. EAE uses hydrolytic enzymes enabling the disintegration of cellular structures, allowing a better release of the intracellular content and penetration of solvents, thus increasing the extraction yields (Nadar et al., 2018). Enzymatic assisted methods have a great potential for extracting bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetables byproducts because they combine high extraction yields with sustainability and quickness. Cellulases and pectinases are the most widely employed enzymes, the former being more efficient in matrices with high contents of polysaccharides (e.g., celluloses or hemicelluloses). On the contrary, when bioactive compounds are extracted from peels or seeds, pectinases are a better option (Ghandahari Yazdi et al., 2019). Several enzyme formulations are currently commercialized in the food industry for olive oil production, fruit and vegetables juices, and wine (Łubek-Nguyen et al., 2022). In addition, the use of enzymes in the industry combined with other extraction techniques to improve extraction of bioactive compounds is a promising research field. Several authors have studied the use of enzymes as pretreatment for degrading cell wall plant tissues which may aid the solvent penetration and bioactive compound dissolution in the next extraction step (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022). Rudraa et al., (2019) used EAE to extract oils from mango kernels, soybean, and rice bran, which contain antioxidants, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer agents, and other biologically active ingredients. However, these approaches have only been performed at lab scale without studying the economic feasibility that includes the enzyme cost and initial investment to scale up the extraction procedure for possible industrial production. Therefore, EAE still has some factors that require further study (Oliver-Simancas et al., 2021).

Loncaric et al. (2020) extracted phenolic, anthocyanins, and flavonol from blueberry pomace using green extraction methods such as high voltage electrical discharges, pulsed electric field and ultrasound-assisted extraction Antioxidant activity and total polyphenols content were both maximized through pulsed electric field technology with assisted extraction using ethanol-based solvent.

Joly et al. (2020) extracted phenolic and flavonoid compounds from potato waste using maceration and heating-assisted extraction. These authors reported that under the specified operation conditions, the total phenolic content of unpeeled potato samples was higher than that of peeled samples. Milea et al. (2021) utilized yellow onion waste to create ingredients with multifunctional activities, obtaining the extract through green solvent aqueous extraction of flavonoids.

5. Fruits and vegetables waste use in food application

The demand for food is increasing around the world, creating the need to develop new foods or improve existing ones. Food development employing food wastes or byproducts from various agro-industries is a good alternative to create secondary food products (Lai et al., 2017). Green and novel biorefinery technologies may offer eco-friendly and profitable solutions, allowing the recovery of several by-products. The extraction of various chemicals from accumulating FVW and FV byproducts opens up new possibilities for using these extracts to improve food quality (Cassani and G. Zavaglia, 2022). In this way, fruits and vegetables waste can be enhanced to elaborate foods such as cookies or cereal bars; but not all agro-industrial wastes can be utilized as an ingredient in a novel functional food. Some wastes are used to enhance the nutritional value of some foods, such as fiber content or protein, and minerals that are vital to health (Majumder and Annegowda, 2021). For example, adding defatted soybean powder to a tortilla raises the protein level (Hernandez and Serna-Saldivar, 2019). Soy flour has also been used to increase the protein and amino acid content of spaghetti (Tadesse et al., 2019). In order to produce a larger yield of nutritional fiber and some minerals, king palm flour was utilized in the making of cookies and gluten-free cookies (Suriya et al., 2017). Díaz-Vela et al, (2017) used pineapple peel flour to improve the physicochemical properties of cooked sausages, with excellent results in a final product. It helps sausages retain water and reduces oxidative rancidity. Mango skin is a good source of dietary fiber; so, the mango peel flour can be used to make pasta, bakery products, dairy products, and extruded foods. All of these food items are quite important in the global food market (Flores-Gallegos, et al., 2021). Besides, Lenucci et al. (2022) showed that different fractions of mango fruits are a good source of bioactive compounds. Waterhouse et al. (2017) performed a study with three distinct apple wastes and discovered that these wastes had a significant amount of polypeptide. These fractions can be utilized to generate new culinary products with improved nutritional properties. Several chemicals found in food residues or waste are better digested in the human system than others. Ordoñez-Santos et al. (2023) extracted carotenoids in mandarin epicarp with sunflower oil as solvent and then, this lipid extract was included in two kinds of samples, cake and bread, as a natural colorant resource and compared with a control sample with synthetic colorant.

Another potential use of FVW is for the manufacture of biodegradable materials for food packaging. Taking into account that plastics are widely used as food packaging materials due to their low cost, easy processing, convenience and desirable physicochemical properties (Asdagh et al., 2021). But the abuse of plastic packaging materials and the fact that they are not disposed of properly after use cause serious environmental pollution, raising concerns about the use of plastic packaging materials (Sani et al., 2021). Consequently, the demand for eco-friendly packaging materials to replace plastic is increasing. Biodegradable polymers can be decomposed in the environment by living organisms under appropriate conditions of temperature, oxygen and humidity, without the residue of toxic or harmful substances to the environment (Hassan et al., 2019). Enzymatic hydrolysis of polymer bonds and reactions of oxidative degradation and hydrolysis (Zhong et al., 2020) mainly cause biodegradation of these polymers. The biodegradability of bio-polymers derived from fruit and vegetable waste depends on their physical properties. For the manufacture of biodegradable packaging materials, various polysaccharides (cellulose derivatives, starch, alginate, pectin, chitosan, carrageenan); proteins (soy protein, wheat gluten, corn zein, gelatin) and lipids (wax, triglycerides, vegetable oils) are used (Galus et al., 2020; Sani et al., 2023). However, packaging films based on biopolymers derived from fruit and vegetable by-products have poor mechanical and physical properties. Therefore, combining these biopolymers with other active compounds derived from food waste (nanoparticles, gums, essential oils, vegetable extracts, and colorants) can reduce these limitations. In this way, edible coatings or biodegradable packaging films prepared from natural compounds have emerged as alternatives to non-biodegradable packaging materials (Sani et al., 2023).

On the other hand, the food industry contributes significantly to food waste generation. During the postharvest and processing stages of fruit and vegetables, there is a loss of quality and quantity of food throughout the supply chain process, commonly defined as fruit and vegetable waste (Dilucia et al., 2020). Therefore, fruit and vegetable waste have potential as a bioplastic material promoting environmental sustainability. The agricultural processing by-products such as skins, seeds, pomace, husks, offal, leaves, and gums from the production and processing of food contain high amounts of fibrous and plant proteins such as starch, cellulose, and pectin (Mohammadi et al., 2022). These agricultural and processing by-products can be reused for recycling and high-value added purposes rather than simply used as feed or waste to reduce environmental pollution and achieve sustainable development. In this regard, the use of underutilized compounds, such as by-products of fruit and vegetable processing in the production of biodegradable packaging films, is an emerging alternative due to the availability of raw materials, cheapness, abundance, environmental friendliness, suitable physical properties, unique sensory and nutritional properties, and increased physical properties and functionality (Sani et al., 2023). The physical and mechanical properties of biopolymers are affected by various factors such as strain and applied force, controlled by the type of polymer, molecular weight, crystallinity, chemical composition, and shape of the polymer. The blending of polysaccharides such as starch, alginate, cellulose, and chitosan and proteins improve and modify the properties of composite films (Kocira et al., 2021). Luchese et al., (2018) investigated the potential of blueberry waste for developing starch-based hydrophobic films. Blueberry waste added to starch film-forming solution significantly decreased the solubility in water and swelling index of starch-based films (Luchese et al., 2018). Similarly, Sani and Alizadeh (2022) developed and characterized an active packaging film based on isolated mung bean protein incorporated with apple pectin and cardamom extract. The resulting composite films showed significant mechanical resistance, moisture barrier, and photocatalytic properties (Sani and Alizadeh, 2022). The physicomechanical properties of biodegradable films also improve by adding different materials such as emulsifiers or surfactants, plasticizers (Kocira et al., 2021). Besides, the inclusion of green extracts in the food industry has also been explored in the area of food packaging. Bio-based materials with antioxidant properties are attracting considerable interest in industry because non-ecofriendly packages are considered one of the most important environmental problems. De Souza Mesquita et al. (2021) developed a green extraction and purification of carotenoids in palm fruit wastes using ionic liquids. After the extraction, the carotenoids were used as a component in a chitosan-based film usable for food packaging. The mechanical characteristics of the films were measured to assess the impact of carotenoid addition on the properties of the films. The authors reported positive effects for added carotenoids on physical properties of the film.

These biopolymer packaging materials are biodegradable, safe, and annually renewable. In addition, various functionally active materials such as antibacterial agents, antioxidants, colorants, flavoring agents, and nutrients can be added to maintain food quality, secure food safety, and prolong the life of the packaged product (Bambace et al., 2021).

Briefly, fruit and vegetable waste are not only a rich source of bioactive compounds but can also play an important role in developing environmentally friendly, sustainable, and environmentally friendly packaging by providing a variety of valuable and versatile polymers. The use of fruits and vegetables by-products and waste materials in the preparation of edible films due to extraction from natural products does not concern the health of the consumer and the food, and they are considered as sustainable materials for the environment. However, future research needs to focus on several important aspects such as cost, industrialization potential and increased productivity, low moisture/or mechanical resistance, regulatory aspects, and consumer acceptance to create commercially viable food waste-based packaging systems (Sani et al., 2023).

6. Conclusion

It is concluded that novel extraction technologies can be used to produce sustainable bioactive compounds from fruit and vegetable waste. Different parts (peel, seed, etc.) are waste that is produced from fruits and vegetables. These fruits and vegetable waste are composed of different bioactive compounds such as dietary fibers, phenolic compounds, and antioxidants. These compounds, as health-related substances, are known to reduce the risk of developing diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, cataracts, and Parkinson’s disease. In this way, FVW has been the focus of recent interest among researchers and health professionals for their role in human health and prevention of chronic diseases.

Different novel techniques are being used to extract bioactive compounds from waste. These sustainable extracts are added to different food products as functional ingredients. The proper use of these biomaterials can promote human health, progress the food industry, and eliminate many of the environmental issues caused by the disposal of these wastes.

The food industry is currently facing the challenge of applying sustainable approaches to recover bioactive compounds from fruits and vegetables by-products according to the Circular Economy concept. The selection of the extraction method is critical as the chemical and physical properties of bioactive compounds. Such decisions also require the consideration of the environmental impact of processes. The selection of sustainable processes should be associated with the selection of green extraction processes and green solvents, as it would not make sense the use of not sustainable processes for the valorization of wastes and losses. However, economic aspects should not be neglected considering that some of the green extraction processes are not the most economically accessible.

The utilization of the fruit as well as vegetable waste especially peels in developing value-added products will be an eco-friendly and sustainable way to create novel business opportunities and also functionalizing this waste for a useful purpose. Most of these interventions are in its preliminary stage and lack technological advances and industrial application. Therefore, there is a high need to develop an agreement between researchers and industrialists to improve the economic potential of these valuable horticultural wastes.

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