Akhism is a tradition that emerged among the Anatolian Turks in the first half of the 13th century and spread to Anatolia, the Balkans, and Crimea until the second half of the 19th century. The Akhi organization was particularly active during the Anatolian Seljuk and Ottoman periods (Balci, 2023, pp. 956-957).

In addition to being an association of tradesmen, Akhism played a significant role in shaping, preserving, and transmitting Turkish culture to future generations. It served as the overarching term for tradesmen and craftsmen's associations (Gündüz et al., 2012, p. 39; Çagatay, 1997, p. 215).

As the Akhi tradition gained popularity among the population, it evolved into a formal institution and expanded its organizational structure, reaching even the most remote villages (Gündüz et al.,2012, p. 40; Çagatay and Ahilik,1997, p. 215; Serinikli, 2017, p 686; Tatlilioglu, 2012, p. 155; Yilmaz and Köse, 2022, p. 138).

During its active years, Akhism aimed to equip the Turkish people with better artistic and professional skills, foster moral development, and encourage honesty and integrity (Tatlilioglu, 2012, p. 155; Serinikli, 2017, p. 684; Öziyci, 2002, p. 201; Yilmaz and Köse, 138).

If there was surplus money in the middle fund after covering its expenses, assistance was provided to tradesmen and craftsmen. However, this aid was not given as a one-way grant; it was to be repaid (Yüksel, 2020, p. 20). As mentioned in the previous section, interest was charged in return for this aid. In both its repayment and the interest charged, the assistance provided to tradesmen and craftsmen can be compared to the loans offered in today's banking system (Bilgin and Taniyici, 2008, p. 138; Çagatay, 1997, p. 135).

Although the word "credit" is derived from the Latin phrase credere (to trust) (Güney, 2020, p. 75; §akar, 2020, p. 2; Bulut, 2020, p. 1; Kapagan, 2020, p. 21), it is rooted in the same principle as the money given to craftsmen in the Akhi organizations, which was expected to be repaid with interest. In fact, the two systems share many similarities, which are fundamental to their basic characteristics. The comparison between the middle fund and today's banking system can be explained as follows:

First, it is important to note the underlying trust in both systems: the belief that the money provided will be repaid. This trust exists in the aid given to tradesmen and craftsmen from the middle fund in the Akhi system, as well as in the loans granted by modern banks (Ertan, 2020, p. 1665; Çevik, 2020, p. 326). Based on this trust, aid or credit is extended to the other party. In both systems, funds are not given to individuals who do not provide sufficient trust.³.

Another indicator that the middle fund's activities resemble those of today's banking system is the practice of earning interest on the repayment of aid provided to tradesmen and craftsmen (Tuncay and Ekmekçi, 2020, p. 86). The interest received in return for the money provided by the middle fund is called "Akça Nema" (Çagatay, 2020, p. 49). This interest appears as an income item in provided by the middle fund was used exclusively for charitable purposes, unlike the interest in today's banking system (Çagatay, Faiz, 1952).

Donations made to tradesmen and craftsmen affiliated with the Akhi organization from the middle fund could be in the form of cash or inkind assistance (Bayram, 1988; Mahirogullari, 2017). In-kind aid refers to assistance other than cash or money. For example, providing raw material support to tradesmen, utilizing properties belonging to the Akhi union, or offering various services constitutes in-kind assistance. Similarly, in-kind loans are also possible in today's banking system. The in-kind credit facility, commonly found in agricultural banking and agricultural credit cooperatives, is widely practiced today. Inkind loans are typically repaid in cash.

It is a historical fact that the middle funds of the Akhi organization could borrow from each other (Bayram, 1988). In these respects, middle funds are similar to today's banking system, as banks can borrow or borrow from each other. Additionally, banks can establish legal relationships with one another through counter-guarantees (Tekinalp, 2005) or by using letters of credit (Tekinalp, 2005).

There were two types of membership in Akhi unions (Ekinci, Ahilik, 2020, p. 26). The first group, the "Internals," consisted of individuals who were actively working. This group included apprentices, journeymen, and masters (Ekinci, Ahilik, 2020, p. 26; Early, 2020, p. 97; Serinikli, 2020, p. 685). On the other hand, retirees, the weak, the crippled, and the sick belonged to the "Externals" class (Ek-inci, Ahilik, 2020, p. 26; Erken, 2020, p. 97; Serinikli, 2020, p. 685) Various aids were provided to people in both classes from the middle fund in the Akhi organization (Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 160; Yüksel, 2020, p. 20). Another mission of the middle funds, established in each business line, was to provide social security to its members (Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 153).

The Akhi system aimed to ensure the social unity, welfare, and development of Turkish society during its active years. The Akhi unions pursued these goals in various ways. In this context, financial aid was provided to tradesmen and craftsmen who suffered material damage from the middle fund. The aforementioned donations could be given to tradesmen and craftsmen in cases of illness, disability, or old age (Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 160), or to their heirs in the event of a member's death (Ma-hirogullari, 2020, p. 147). All these features show that the middle fund in the Akhi tradition shares similarities with today's social insurance system (Korkusuz and Ugur, 2020, p. 40; Alper, 2020, p. 6; Güzel et al., 2020, p. 23; Yüksel, 2020, p. 21).

The middle funds form the foundation of today's social insurance system (Demirci, 2020, p. 389) and represent early examples of social security (Alper, 2020, p. 6; Yüksel, 2020, p. 21). The state did not contribute to the middle funds (Güzel et al., 2020, p. 23). As a result, meticulous efforts were necessary to ensure the system operated flawlessly and that no one was disadvantaged. In fact, it was essential for the middle fund to have income in order to provide these donations. The middle funds relied on their regular incomes while providing social assistance to both their internal and external members.

It can be said that the money paid by members into the middle fund constituted the primary source of the resources required for aid (Güzel et al., 2020, p. 23). The money paid to the middle fund on a weekly or monthly basis is essentially a "premium" (Alper, 2020, p. 6; Güzel et al., 2020, p. 23; Korkusuz and Ugur, 2020, p. 40; Tuncay and Ekmekçi, 2020, p. 86) Additionally, the compulsory fees paid when transitioning from apprenticeship to journeyman or mastership also played a key role in fulfilling this social security function. Both the regular payment of premiums and the compulsory promotion fees further indicate that the middle fund is quite similar to today's social insurance system.

Finally, it should be noted that Law No. 6824, which was adopted on February 23, 2017, came into effect. With the 9th article of this law, an amendment was made to the Unemployment Insurance Law No. 4447. This amendment established a "Tradesman Akhi Fund" within the Turkish Employment Agency. The Tradesmen Akhi Fund operates within a social insurance system (Tuncay and Ekmekçi, 2020, p. 86). Through this fund, allowances are provided to shopkeepers who have gone bankrupt or whose workplaces have been closed, and these individuals are supported in finding new jobs. In this regard, it can be stated that the practices of the Tradesman Akhi Fund closely resemble those of the middle fund (Tuncay and Ekmekçi, 2020, p. 86).

Although regulations and practices for consumer protection are found both in Islamic law and within the scope of Akhism, it is undoubtedly a recent development to introduce the concept into legal literature (Öziyci, 2020, p. 1). Today, the main legal regulation applied for the protection of individuals classified as consumers is PCL. The first article of this law clearly states that its purpose is the protection of consumers⁴. Additionally, a general directorate named the "General Directorate of Consumer Protection and Market Surveillance" within the Ministry of Trade continues its activities effectively.

There are a number of rights available to consumers in terms of protection. Examples of these rights include the right to file a complaint, seek compensation for damages, or choose one of these options. While these rights also exist within the Akhi system, it can be argued that the primary source of these rights is Islamic law (Öziyci and et al. 2020, p. 69). Similarly, certain regulations and practices were implemented to protect consumers within the Akhi system. These regulations were typically outlined in documents known as "Fütüv-vetname"⁵ (Kosum, 2020, p. 366; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 160; Çimçek, 2020, p. 36). It can be said that it is necessary to prioritize the protection of consumers both in Akhism and today, and to implement regulations in this regard. Consumers are in a vulnerable position when dealing with goods or service providers, and therefore, they require protection (Gündüz et al., 2020, p. 45; Kapagan, 2020, p. 13).

The regulations and practices for consumer protection in the Akhi system share many similarities with those in place today. Most of the rules established within the Akhi organization were aimed at protecting the consumer (Kosum, 2020, p. 367; Erbasi and Ersöz, 2020, p. 361). Numerous rules were created for this purpose, and tradesmen and craftsmen who did not comply with these rules were subject to sanctions, including dismissal (Gündüz et al., 2020, p. 38; Erbasi and Ersöz, 2020, p. 362; Erden, 2020, p. 392).

One of the duties performed in Akhism for the protection of consumers was price determination (Kosum, 2020, p. 376; Ekinci, 2020, p. 48; Öziyci, 2020, p. 202; Yilmaz and Köse, 2020, p. 140). Selling products at exorbitant prices above the normal price was referred to as "gabn," which was prohibited within the Akhi organization (Kosum, 2020, p. 376). A committee, consisting of representatives from various professions and public officials, would come together to determine the price of goods or services, considering the cost and profit margin (Gündüz et al., 2020, p. 47). This practice helped prevent the sale of goods or services at inflated prices and protected consumers by ensuring the quality standards of goods and services (Gündüz et al., 2020, p. 42; Öziyci, 2020, p. 202; Erden, 2020, p. 390-391; Erbasi and Ersöz, 2020, p. 361; Yilmaz and Köse, 2020, p. 140). Today, although public authorities determine quality standards, there is no attempt to regulate the prices of goods or services in the same way as in the Akhi system. This order is referred to as a free-market economy.

In cases where goods purchased from a tradesman or craftsman who was a member of the Akhi organization were faulty, or became obsolete before the normal durability period, the consumer could apply to the tradesman or craftsman and request that the goods be replaced with a new one (Mahirogullari, 2020, p. 149; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158). Today, consumers have certain rights in the event that goods purchased are defective. These rights are outlined in Article 11 of the PCL. They include rights such as rescinding the contract, requesting a discount on the sale price, repairing the goods, replacing them with similar, defect-free goods, and seeking compensation.

In the event of any defect in goods purchased from a tradesman or craftsman affiliated with the Akhi organization, consumers had the right to follow a complaint procedure if they did not achieve the desired outcome after contacting the tradesman or craftsman (Öziyci, 2020, p. 203). Consumers who claimed that the goods or services were defective could escalate their complaints up to the highest level to remedy the situation (Öziyci, 2020, p. 203; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158). Complaints were initially made to the head of the Akhi branch, and if no resolution was reached, they could be escalated to the affiliated Akhi union. Ultimately, if no satisfactory result was achieved, the consumer had the right to apply to the Akhi sheikh to whom all Akhi unions were affiliated (Öziyci, 2020, p. 203; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158). Today, Consumer Arbitration Committees are established in provincial and district centers, where consumers can apply (Article 66 et al. of the PCL). The decisions of these committees may appeal to consumer courts, which fall under judicial jurisdiction (Article 70/3 of the PCL). The decision of the consumer court is final. (Article 70/5 of the PCL).

Another optional right, valid both in Akhism and today, is compensation for damages. A consumer who suffered a loss due to a defect in goods or services could demand compensation from the Akhi craftsmen who caused the loss (Öziyci, 2020, p. 203). Similarly, it can be deduced from Article 1 of the Turkish Consumer Protection Law (PCL) that the consumer may claim damages from the goods or service provider.

Another similarity between Akhism and today's practices in consumer protection is found in Quality Management System (QMS). QMS is a management philosophy that advises businesses to prioritize customer satisfaction above all else (Çimçek, 2020, p. 79; Karatop and Kubat, 2020, p. 353; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158). In QMS customer satisfaction comes before profit, and actions are taken within the framework of the infrastructure required to realize it (Çimçek, 2020, p. 80; Karatop and Kubat, 2020, p. 359; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158).

Between 1502 and 1507, several kanunnames (laws) were prepared in the Ottoman Empire. Among these, the Bursa, Izmir, and Edirne ihtisâb (Municipality) kanunnames are of particular importance. These laws are recognized as the world's first standards law, the first consumer protection law, the first environmental regulation, and the first food regulation (Yilmaz and Köse, 2020, p. 140). This feature indicates that quality standards, one of the ways to protect consumers in the Ottoman Empire, were implemented by the state and within the Akhism organization in a manner close to the modern understanding of quality control.

In Akhism, customers were also seen as benefactors, and the goal was to achieve customer satisfaction rather than to make money. Both managers and tradesmen prioritized moral development and building relationships with people. In other words, making money was not a goal in Akhism, but rather a means to become a moral person and to connect with others (Öziyci, 2020, pp. 203-204; Durak and Yücel, 2020, p. 158; Bilgin and Taniyici, 2020, p. 138). In this respect, it is clear that there is significant overlap between the view of consumers/ customers in the Akhism system and today's QMS practices. Sanctions such as warnings, penalties, and dismissal from the Akhism were also applied to Akhis who failed to comply with certain moral principles or meet quality standards (Erden, 2020, pp. 390-391; Erbaçi and Ersöz, 2020, p. 363; Horata, 2020, p. 535; Yilmaz and Köse, 2020, p. 140)

The creation of new inventions by a tradesman or craftsman, or products produced by a tradesman or craftsman privy to a certain professional secret, is similar to today's patent rights. A patent is the term used for new inventions that solve a technical problem and can be applied to industry (Ayhan et al., 2020, p. 298; Karasu et al., 2020, p. 229; Akay, 2020, p. 42). Of course, the inventions within the Akhi organization cannot be considered patents in today's sense, as the key feature of a patent is its applicability to industry. It is not typical for the inventions of a craftsman or tradesman within the Akhi organization to be applicable to industry. However, it can be said that the innovations made by craftsmen or tradesmen who are members of the Akhi organization are rewarded with monopoly rights, and this monopoly righ⁸ is similar to the concept of a patent (Çamat, 2020, p. 39)

On the other hand, one view suggests that the gedik system⁹ and narh¹⁰ in the Akhi practice are also examples of patent-like practices (Çamat, 2020, p. 39). We agree with this view, as the concept of a patent historically emerged as a privilege granted to certain individuals (letters of patent) (Çamat, 2020, p. 30; Akay, 2020, p. 42; Yazici and §akhin, 2020, p. 816; Suluk et al, 2020, p. 257). Since the gedik and narh practices in the Akhi tradition were also privileges granted to specific individuals, these practices should be considered as the earliest examples of patent-like practices, even if not in the modern sense.

Based on the previous two points, it can be concluded that the first examples of granting patent-like monopoly rights in Anatolia were seen in the Akhi system (Çamat, 2020, p. 39). Since the 19th century, when the patent right in its modern sense emerged, practices have not changed much (Akay, 2020, p. 43). The conditions for patentability and regulations on non-patentable applications are now detailed in the Industrial Property Law. The principles of industrial property law, the first examples of which were seen in England (Akay, 2020, p. 48; Yazici and §akhin, 2020, p. 816) are in parallel with European practices¹¹.

The Ihtira Berat Law, which is the first example of regulations in the sense of positive law for today's patent law, entered into force in the second half of the 19th century, when the tradition of Akhism was about to come to an end. Although the Ihtira Berat Law did not find an application area within the Akhism tradition during the period it was in force, patent applications were seen in the Akhism system.

As new inventions were made and the desire of craftsmen to put their own signatures on their products increased, the protection of the rights of these craftsmen emerged as a necessity. The protection of these individuals within the Akhi organization also resulted in the encouragement of new inventions. In environments where there is no protection, people are less likely to engage in new inventions.

The Akhism system was based on many ethical principles that the Akhis had to follow. The protection of inventors or craftsmen who put their signature on their products stemmed from the ethical foundations of Akhism (Ünsür, 2020, p. 96). In other words, the protection of right holders based on moral principles emerged as a necessity in the institution of Akhism. For example, a craftsman who obtained a privilege or similar right could sell his product or service at a higher price than his peers (Kütükoglu, 2020, p. 390). This would be supervised by the kadi in charge of the region, an official designated by the kadi, or an official from within the Akhism organization (Kütükoglu, 2020, p. 390). Violators were subject to sanctions such as warnings, fines, imprisonment, and dismissal from the profession (Kütükoglu, 2020, p. 3390). Similarly, craftsmen who signed their products could be more recognized than others in the same occupational group.

In Akhism, the standards of products, the identity of the inventors, and the characteristics of the inventions were recorded in the kadi registers (Mahirogullari, 2020, p. 152). Thanks to these registry records, the usurpation of the rights of the right holders was prevented. These records perform similar functions to the registry kept by the Turkish Patent and Trademark Office today.

The protection of inventors within the Akhi organization is similar to the current system. However, naturally, both systems have different aspects. Today, some conditions are required for inventions to be patented, which are more stringent than those in the Akhi organization. For example, in order to be patented, the invention must be innovative and applicable to industry. However, there is no such requirement in Akhism.

Although the Akhi organization was seen as an organization of tradesmen and craftsmen, it was essentially a community that aimed to guide society. Many of the principles of the Akhi organization were based on the Qur'an and Sunnah, focusing on good morals, protecting the weak and the poor, respecting others, and ensuring unity and solidarity. While these were the primary objectives, legal practices such as professional development, supervision, the healthy continuation of commercial life, and the prevention and punishment of rights violations were also inevitable. This study identifies these similarities and also highlights the differences.

The middle fund practices in the Akhi system are similar to today's banking system and social insurance system. The loan-like money and in-kind assistance given to the members of the Akhi organization from the middle chest reflect this similarity. Additionally, the lending of money between different middle funds is similar to the lending of money between banks. With the compulsory payment of premiums to the middle funds, practices such as making payments from these funds to the needy and those in need of financial assistance overlap with today's social insurance system.

The consumer concept within the framework of Law No. 6502 on the Protection of Consumers, which is currently in force, and the consumer concept encountered in the Akhism system, completely overlap. The provisions and practices introduced for the protection of the consumer are also similar in many respects. In the Akhi organization, the fact that the customer is seen as a benefactor and the customer-oriented understanding is dominant means the protection of the consumer (Öziyci, 203204; Erbaçi and Ersöz, 362; Yilmaz and Köse, 140). Today, there are many legal regulations aiming to protect the consumer. Issues such as the existence of a number of remedies for the consumer, which were also applied in the Akhi system, and the protection of the rights of the consumer through legal regulations, overlap with today>s consumer protection practices.

Finally, it should be noted that in the Akhism organization, there were rights similar to today's intellectual property rights. By registering some rights in the kadi registers, it was ensured that others would not violate these rights. This practice overlaps with today's practices. Similarly, it was possible for some craftsmen to sign their products (Durak and Yücel, 158). This practice is similar to today>s trademark law. On the other hand, it is not possible to find similar intellectual property rights to those of today in the Akhism system.

As can be seen, there were numerous practices and regulations for the protection the interests of the members and customers. There is no doubt that these practices and regulations served the purpose of maintaining a healthy commercial life.

Additionally, they are comprehensive enough to shed light on the present day and influence current practices.