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1 Introduction

From the nineties onwards, the process of globalization driven by the process of new technologies in communication and transportation, has generated a strong growth in the integration of the economical and international trade. According to Hakala, Lemmetyinen and Kantola (2013) globalization and the consequent competition in international trade, have made countries more sensitive to how they are portrayed in the Market, thus highlighting the importance of the concern with the image of the country.

According to Papadopoulos (2012) the relative importance of studies on birthplace and country image, is reflected in the attention given to the subject, both in research and in business practice. The academic side is one of the areas that has received great attention in international literature marketing (Dinnie, 2004; Usunier, 2006; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009; Papadopoulos, 2012; Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015).

On the business practice side, Parameswaran and Pisharodi (1994) argue that knowledge about aspects of a country´s image can help companies better understand their target markets. To Papadopoulos and Heslop (2002) the image of the country plays an important role in the construction of this target market, since it allows to structure an effective business strategy, without weakening the international positioning of the company.

Regarding the importance of the analysis of the country image construct, according to Papadopoulos and Heslop (2002) and Roth and Diamontopoulos (2009) most of the studies published in the literature, refer to the study of the country of origin and only a small proportion addresses the image of a particular country. In this sense, there is still a debate in the literature on how to deal with the topic.

In this context, the objective of the present study was to investigate the dimensions that make up the image of Brazil in Latin America. The choice of Brazil as a topic of study is due to some factors: 1. To be one of the largest economics in Latin America; 2. Few studies have been done on the image of Brazil vis-a-vis other Latin American countries; 3. The fact that it is an emerging country with recognition on the world stage, is gaining greater importance at the international level, as highlighted by Brito Viana (2014).

In order to reach the objective of evaluating the perception of the image of Brazil in Latin America, a survey was carried out with sample of 1617 responders of Mexican, Argentinean, Ecuadorian and Bolivian nationalities. The results of the study confirmed that the Brazilian image can be analyzed by a combination of the cognitive, affective and conative components. Seeing that the cognitive was the most strongly identified composite, based essentially on political-related beliefs, people of the country, social-environmental aspects, economy, innovation and culture of Brazil.

2 Theoretical Review

2.1 Measurement of the composite image of country

Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015), Brijs, Bloemer and Kasper (2011), Sikonja, Brijs and Vanhoof (2009), Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), and Laroche et al. (2005) when analyzing the country image under the attitude approach, found that the country image would be a three- dimensional concept that would consist of a cognitive, affective and conative component. In this three-dimensional approach, the cognitive component includes an individual's beliefs about a particular country, the affective component describes the emotional value of the country to the individual being assessed, and the conative component that captures an individual's behavioral intentions toward the country.

2.2 Cognitive component of the country image

For Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), the cognitive component of attitude is associated with people´s beliefs about an object (person, problem, or event). According to the authors, there are three types of beliefs: descriptive, inferential, and informational. These beliefs are formed in different ways and all contribute potentially to what a person knows, thinks or believes about the object. Thus, the cognitive component of the country image is related to all the descriptive, inferential, and informational beliefs that consumers have about the same (Martin & Eroglu, 1993).

According to Matarazzo (2012), beliefs or cognitions about a country´s image are generally related to environmental conditions or any aspect of a country that is external to a company´s marketing system. For Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015), the beliefs that consumers have about a country´s image are usually related to the economic situation (Martin & Eroglu, 1993; Wang & Lamb, 1983), the political system (Heslop et al., 2004) the skills of people (Heslop et al., 2004) and the degree of technological advancement.

In the argument of Brijs, Bloemer and Kasper (2011), the image of a country is structured in nine dimensions, namely: cultural identity, political environment, language, history, climate, landscape, economic and technological development, religion, and people of country. The authors Lala, Allred and Chakraborty (2008) identified seven dimensions frequently cited in the literature: economic conditions, conflict, political structure, professional training, work culture, environment and work. For Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), the cognitive component of the country image includes the country aspect (economy, politics, culture, technology, landscape and climate) and people aspect (competence, creativity, quality of life, training and work.

In comparing the different dimension cited, the three authors (Brijs, Bloemer & Kasper, 2011; Lala, Allred & Chakraborty, 2009; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009), coincide in highlighting the economy, politics, culture, technology, geography, environment, and the population of the country, as the main elements of the cognitive component of the country image.

2.3 Affective component of the country image

According to Brijs, Bloemer and Kasper (2011), Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), and Laroche et al. (2005), the affective component of the country image captures the feelings (emotional reactions) of consumers towards a particular country. Verlegh (2001) argues that these feelings can be formed through direct experiences (visits to the country or contact with foreign people) or through indirect experiences (art, education and the mass media) with countries and their citizens.

Yet according to Verlegh (2001) countries evoke a variety of affective responses which include, for example, feelings of anxiety, hostility, sympathy and interest. For your part Brijs (2006) distinguishes that feelings towards a country can include: pleasure, tranquility, sympathy, confidence and pride (positive feelings) and animosity, threat, hostility and irritation (negative feelings).

According to Maher and Carter (2011) only the researches of Brijs (2006); Haubl (1996); Heslop et al. (2004); Laroche et al. (2005); Orbaiz and Papadopoulos (2003) and Verlegh (2001) analyzed together the cognitive component and the affective component of the country image.

Regarding the study of the affective component, Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009) suggest three perspectives:

1. 1. From the difference between positives and negatives feeling. According to Brijs (2006) the affective component of the country image uses positive feelings as: enthusiastic, interested, lively, determined, insightful, attentive, active, strong, proud and considerate; and negative feelings such as: nervous, angry, hostile, scared, annoyed, distressed, embarrassed and guilty.
2. 2. From scales extracted from the literature of emotion, for example: pleasure, excitement, mastery, fear, anger, sadness, acceptance, grief, expectation, surprise, active, strong, pleasure, anger, disgust, loneliness, among others (Russell & Mehrabian, 1974; Plutchik, 1980; Diener & Emmons,1984; Diener, Smith & Fujita,1995; Watson, Clark & Tellegen,1988; Izard et al., 1993; Mano & Oliver, 1993; Richins, 1997).
3. 3. From scales of attitude literature, for example, Derbaix (1995) used a scale suggested by Sjöberg, Svensson and Persson (1979), which includes 34 underlying items of three dimensions of a person's transient affective state: pleasantness, activation, and strain (Crites et al., 1994; Eagly et al., 1994; Derbaix, 1995).

2.4 Conative component of country image

The conative component of the country image refers to the behavioral intentions of consumers in relation to a given country. According to Brijs (2006), the intentions of a person's behavior toward a country must be seen as one-dimensional bipolar constructions, which change between "approaching" and "avoiding” the country, as well as its people and their products.

In the argument of Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), when studying the behavioral consequences of the country image, the component analysis should not be limited to the evaluations or preferences of products of a country, since other potential consequences could be, for example, the intentions to visit the country, to have closer ties with the country, or personal investments in the country (Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009).

According to Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015) and Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), the conative component of the country image was neglected in most country imaging studies. Therefore, there are few studies that analyze the behavioral intentions related to the conative component of the country image (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009; Stylos et al., 2016)

3 Methodological Procedures

In order to verify the proposed objective, a quantitative exploratory research was carried out by means of a survey with some sample of 1617 graduate and postgraduate students, collected in person and without interference from the interviewer. The respondents are from the Autonomous National University of Mexico (Mexico, with 862 respondents), University of Buenos Aires (Argentina, with 112 respondents), the Central University of the Ecuator (Ecuador, with 291 respondents), The Higher University of San Andrés and the Private University Bolivian (Bolivia, with 352 respondents). The choice of respondents with a university profile was considered convenient for the purposes of the present research, since this segment has greater access to information and contact with other countries. In addition, the meta-analysis results published by Verlegh and Steenkamp (1999) showed that there was no difference between sample studies using students and those using consumer samples.

The exploratory research, with a non-probabilistic sampling for convenience and quantitative nature, is characterized by an approach in the field, seeking the situational characteristics presented by the interviewees, to generate quantitative measures of the attributes observed by them (Aaker, Kumar & Day, 2004)

For the construction of the scales were used the literature of Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015), Brijs, Bloemer and Kasper (2011), Sikonja, Brijs and Vanhoof (2009), Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), and Laroche et al. (2005) on existing conceptual approaches on "country image”. In which the country image is composed of a cognitive component, an affective component and a conative component.

Thus, the scale of eight dimensions (economics, politics, culture, innovation, companies, socio-environmental aspects, education and people) presented in Chart 1 was the result of a theoretical review and an in-depth interview with 22 students of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (7 men and 15 women) where the selection parameters were: availability, interest in the researched subject and not having visited Brazil.

The technique used in the application of in-depth interviews is called ZMET (Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique). According to Zaltman and Coulter (1995) the ZMET is a qualitative technique of hybrid character based on several domains, among which are verbal and nonverbal communication, visual sociology, visual anthropology, literary criticism, semiotics, mental images and cognitive neuroscience and phototherapy. In this way, the construction of the scale allowed to adjust some points not covered in the literature.

Thus, the study aimed to test the following hypotheses about the cognitive component of the country image:

1. H1: The image of Brazil has a positive relationship with country-related beliefs;

2. H1a: The cognitive component of Brazil's image is formed by relational beliefs with culture; H1b: The cognitive component of the Brazilian image is formed by the beliefs related to the economy;

3. H1c: the cognitive component of the Brazilian image is formed by the beliefs related to politics; H1d: the cognitive component of the image of Brazil is formed by the beliefs related to innovation;

4. H1e: the cognitive component of the image of Brazil is formed by the beliefs related to people; H1f: the cognitive component of the image of Brazil is formed by the beliefs related to socio- environmental aspects.

Giving sequence, the next component analyzed was affective, and based on the theoretical discussions presented the proposed scale for the affective component of the Brazilian image (Chart 2) includes four feelings, which were extracted from the qualitative studies carried out and from the suggested scale by Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015). This scale was chosen because it has a high external validity; additionally, there are not many studies that examine feelings as part of a country's image.

Considering the concepts related to the affective component (feelings) of the country image, the following hypothesis emerged:

1. H2: The image of Brazil has a positive relationship with the feelings about the country.

The last component studied was the conative, in which following the recommendations of Roth and Diamantopoulus (2009) the proposed scale for the conative image component of Brazil (Chart 3) included four behavioral intentions in relation to the country, which were extracted from the studies of Buhmann and Ingenhoff (2015), Laroche et al. (2005), and Brijs (2006).

Considering the concepts related to the conative component (behavioral intentions) of the country image, the following hypothesis arises:

1. H3: The image of Brazil has a positive relation with the conative components related to the country.

In order to collect the research data, a questionnaire was prepared in the Spanish language based on the theoretical review. The questionnaire was the result of an earlier research, involving 22 in-depth interviews using the Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMET) with students from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM).

Following the recommendations of DeVellis (2003), the research constructs that composed the image of Brazil (Charts 1, 2 and 3) generated a series of questions that were analyzed by five specialists in the area of marketing and international relations. They received the scale to classify the assertions within the constructs proposed by the research along with the concepts of each construct. With this procedure, the experts contributed to adjust the phrases (evaluation) and to analyze if they fit the construct proposed by the research (validation).

After incorporating the necessary adjustments, an initial version of the questionnaire was pre-tested with 15 students from Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina and Mexico. The purpose of this procedure was to make the necessary corrections on the interpretation of the questions and the completion of the questionnaire in the Spanish language. With this, the questionnaire resulting from the validation and pre-test process was sent by e-mail to some professors who had previously been contacted within each university that participated in the research. The questionnaires were answered between September and December of 2015. After being applied, they were sent by mail to be tabulated and analyzed.

For the data collection, a Likert-type scale with five points of agreement/discordance was used, where 1 (one) meant total disagreement and 5 (five) total agreement. According to Malhotra (2006), this scale presents better results in relation to the scales with even number of alternatives, being even more didactic for the interviewee. Regarding the categorical variables of the research, alternatives, being even more didactic for the interviewee. Regarding the categorical variablesof the research,

The SmatPLS2.0M3 software was used for the structural equation model, since the data collected came from a Likert scale and did not require a symmetrical distribution of the variables measured, so that the models of structural equations based on covariance, are more suitable for analysis (Ringle, Silva & Bido, 2104)

For the evaluation of the minimum sample size and adequate for the analysis of the model, the recommendations of Ringle, Silva & Bido (2014) in which the construct that "receives more arrows" (predictors) is the one that decides the size in question. Analyzing the model of structural equations that was generated from the collected data, it was verified that all the constructs that could be considered "predictors" received an arrow.

For this purpose, the G*Power 3.1.7 software was used with Cohen's (1988) specifications for the social sciences and behavior, i.e., the mean effect size (0.15) and test power of 0, 80. Thus it is necessary to have a scale like the one used in the research, a minimum sample of 55 respondents. This would be sufficient to detect the desired effects of structural equation modeling with the Partial Least Square (PLS) method. As the sample of this research was of 1617 respondents, this condition was met.

4 Data Analysis

A total of 1638 responses were received from which 19 were discarded because they were not fully answered, as a result of the network of collaborators in each of the universities participating in the study.

Thus, a total of 1617 complete responses were considered valid for the survey. In the analysis of the frequencies on the profile of the respondents the sample consists of 51% of female gender and 49% of male gender. As for the country, 862 (53%) of respondents are Mexican, 352 (22%) are Bolivians, 291 (18%) are Ecuadorians and 112 (7%) are Argentines. The main age of participants was 23 with a standard deviation of 4.45.

Regarding the level of education of the participants, 1440 (89%) were students of undergraduate courses and 177 (11%) students of postgraduate courses. Of the total number of participants, 206 (13%) knew Brazil and 1411 (87%) were never in Brazil. In addition, 871 (54%) of the participants never traveled to other countries, 399 (25%) traveled less than three times, 256 (16%) traveled more than three times and 91 (6%) travel frequently to other countries.

The profile of the sample and the data obtained by the survey were estimated, the second-order reflective model was estimated, which allows the use of a latent variable that can be measured by other latent variables, in which the indicators were the manifestations of each one. In this way, the image of Brazil was influenced by the affective component (feelings), the conative component (behavioral intentions) and the cognitive component (beliefs). The beliefs as an influence for the dimensions of culture, economy, politics, people, socio-environmental and innovation, according to the hypotheses stipulated by the research.

Considering the hypotheses proposed, a model was constructed that was analyzed using the software SmartPLS 2.0. After the first analysis, the following items were removed from the model: P2_Cult, P2_Soc_Am, P1_Pes, P3_Pes, P4_Pes, because they did not present factorial loads above 0.50 (HAIR et al., 2014) and consequently did not criterion of convergence validation (Average Variance Extracted - AVE) or criterion of Fornell and Larcker (Henseler et al., 2009), this is, AVE > 0, 50.

Following the investigation, the model was analyzed again without the variables P2_Cult, P2_Soc_Am, P1_Pes, P3_Pes, and P4_Pes. The result was that all relations have factor loadings above 0.50 (Hair et al., 2014). With the adjusted relations the R² (part of the variables that explain the constructs and indicate the quality of the adjustment model) were evaluated. For the social and behavioral sciences area, Cohen (1998) suggests that R² = 2% is classified as a small effect, R² = 13% as a mean effect and R² = 26% as a large effect. Also analyzed the Cronbach's alpha (internal consistency) and composite reliability that are used to evaluate if the sample is free of bias, or if the responses as a whole are reliable.

Another important part of the analysis is the size of the Cohen (f²) effect or indicator that evaluates how each construct is "useful" for model fit, values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered to be small, medium and large respectively. In relation to the predictive validity (Q²) or Stone-Geisser indicator the same evaluates the accuracy of the adjustment model. Predictive validity criteria are values greater than zero (HAIR et al., 2014). Those indicators were calculated by blindfolding routine in SmartPLS (f² and Q²). All quality indicators are expressed in Table 1.

The analysis of table 1 clearly indicates that the model can be considered adjusted as a whole, soon after the elimination of variables that are not adherent to them, we obtained indicators that met the adjustment requirements of the PLS-SEM (modeling used).

In addition to the quality of the fit model, the discriminant validity must be analyzed, since the constructs must relate, but be independent (Hair et al., 2014). Fornell and Larcker criteria are used for this, comparing the square roots of the AVE values for each construct with the Pearson correlations between the constructs (or latent variables). The square roots of the AVE should be larger than the correlation between the constructs shown in Table 2.

The analysis of Table 2 shows that the square roots of the AVE are larger in all cases than the correlations between the constructs. This fact shows that the model has discriminant validity and can be interpreted.

Finally, in order to evaluate the overall quality of the model, the GoF (Goodness-of-Fit) indicator, which is given by the geometric mean R2 and AVE weighting average (Ringle, Wende & Will, 2005). The calculated value was 0.656 and indicated that the model can be considered as a good fit, since values above 0.36 are considered good for areas such as social and behavioral sciences (Wetzels et al., 2009).

After finding that the model had an adequate adjustment (figure 1), one can analyze the hypotheses created from the theory and that are presented in Table 3. In this model it is possible to observe that the image of Brazil is formed by the components of the image of a country, being the cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings) and conative (behavioral intentions).

Thus, when analyzing Table 3, it was possible to infer that all the hypotheses were supported, since they presented significant paths (p <0.05) and considerably positive factor positions (Beta). Thus, for this sample it is possible to affirm that the image of Brazil is formed by feelings, behavioral intentions and beliefs related to culture, economics, politics, innovation, people and socio-environmental aspects of the country.

4.1 Discussion of results

In a more detailed and applied analysis of the results obtained through the Modeling of Structural Equations with the Partial Least Square (PLS) method, it was possible to observe that all factors that form the cognitive component are relevant for the image of the Brazil to the countries where the research was carried out.

Making a more detailed analysis and considering the load factors of the proposed model, it was possible to confirm that the cognitive component (beliefs) of the image of Brazil for Mexican, Bolivian, Argentinean and Ecuadorian consumers is based on beliefs related mainly to the "Politics” (with a load factor of 0.804). Brazil is seen as a competent country in international politics. That is, responsible for international policy, adopting a stance that respects other nations and adopts fair procedures in international trade.

For the respondents of the research, the culture of Brazil is important (presented a load factor of 0.711) and the aspects that stand out more are related to the patrimonial and historical resources. As for the economy (with a load factor of 0.749), Brazil is seen as a rich, stable country with many opportunities.

Thus, Brazil was seen as a country whose population is composed of working, competitive, disciplined, friendly people with a high level of education and attachment to the environment (with a load factor 0,790). These results are consistent with those found in the qualitative research, where it was evidenced that Mexican consumers have a good and positive image of the population of Brazil. Thus, this image was also found among other consumers in other Latin American countries.

For the innovation aspect (with a load factor of 0.723), Brazil is seen as innovative, technologically advanced and with good research capacity, having an wide biodiversity and a pleasant climate as the main characteristics of the socio-environmental aspect (with load factor of 0.756). In this sense, the consumers surveyed look at Brazil as a country that has a wide biodiversity, natural beauty, a pleasant climate, and a country that cares for the environment.

As for the affective component, which would be the feelings related to the country, (with a load factor of 0.722), meaning that the respondents have a feeling of sympathy, fascination, affection and admiration for Brazil.

Finally, the conative component, which would be the intentions of behavior toward the country (with a load factor of 0.712), demonstrate that people would like to visit Brazil, strengthen affective ties, buy products manufactured in Brazil and that their country received investments from Brazil.

5 Final Considerations

According to the theoretical review, the concept of country image comprises a cognitive component (beliefs), an affective (feelings) and a conative, behavioral intentions (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015; Brijs, Bloemer & Kasper, 2011; Roth & Diamantopoulos 2009, Laroche et al., 2005). In this sense, through research, it was confirmed that the image of Brazil encompasses these three components.

The results with respect to the cognitive component were consistent with the arguments of Brijs, Bloemer and Kasper (2011), Lala, Allred and Chakraborty (2008) and Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), who emphasize that the cognitive dimension of a country's image is based on beliefs related to the economy, politics, culture, technology, geography and environment and the country's population. The results regarding the affective and conative components are consistent with those found in qualitative research, since Mexican consumers reported that their feelings toward Brazil and its people are one of admiration and sympathy, and that his intentions to interact with Brazil are, mainly, to visit the country and buy products from it.

The consumers' beliefs were related to culture, economy, politics, people, innovation and socio-environmental. These results pointed out that the political image that Brazil projects in Latin America can be considered relevant and positive. The results also showed to aspects inherent to the country, such as its natural environment, beauty and aesthetics.

As for innovation and technology, Brazil is seen as an advanced country. In this sense, Brazil is seen as a strong and stable economy, a rich country that provides employment opportunities and has a strong industrial infrastructure. These results show that the economic image of Brazil towards Latin American consumers was also positive. Additionally, one can interpret that these results are justified in the sense that Brazil has the largest economy in Latin America, and this may have an influence on the beliefs about the country's economy.

Finally, the beliefs about the image of Brazil too were related to a "Culture" dimension. In all the studied countries the image that they form of Brazil was of a country with historical wealth, a country that possesses a cultural patrimony with international recognition and that preserves its traditions. In addition, the Portuguese language was considered useful for business in this sense, it can be interpreted that for the Mexican, Bolivian, Argentinean and Ecuadorian consumers, the Portuguese language does not represent a barrier to doing business with the country.

As for the affective component (feelings) of the image of Brazil, it was confirmed that the consumers of Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador who participated in the study, feel the loveliness, affection, sympathy and admiration for Brazil and its people. These results reinforce the positive image that Brazil reflects in Latin America. With respect to the conative component (behavioral intentions) of the image of Brazil, consumers from all the countries surveyed confirmed that they would like to have closer ties with Brazil, which would like their countries (Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador) to receive more investments from Brazil, who would like to buy Brazilian products and, finally, they would like to visit Brazil.

With respect to the results on the means by which the consumers surveyed are informed about Brazil (the categorical variable of the research), the results show that the Internet and the television newspapers were the main means of communication used by consumers from Latin- Americans such as Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia, and the Ecuador, for information about Brazil. In this sense, it can be interpreted that the image that these consumers form about Brazil, is based on information available on the Internet (media characterized by free access to information), as well as in the television newspapers (media characterized by presenting more specific and directed information).

With respect to the main theoretical implications, the results of this research reinforce the discussion about the analysis of the country's image, based on the attitude approach, since it has been demonstrated that the image of a country can be analyzed from the three components of the attitude (cognitive, affective, conative). On the other hand, the results contribute to the discussion about the use of the ZMET method in the definition of the specific dimensions of the image of the country studied, as the first qualitative step of a qualitative-quantitative research (combiningboth methods of integrated form).

Whit regarding management implications, the research results can be used to assist those responsible for exporting companies in decision making, especially those that export or want to access the Latin American market. Although the present study has an exploratory character, important attributes regarding the image of Brazil were identified, from the perspective of Latin American consumers. Thus, the results can also help strengthen communication strategies and promote the image of Brazil abroad.

Finally, with respect to the limitations of the research, the main limitation stems from the sampling used, since the non-probabilistic sample for convenience reduces the generalization power of the results. A suggestion for future studies, is to increase the segments of data studied, in order to evaluate the variations of perceptions of the image of Brazil in each country of Latin America.

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How to cite the article:: Ayala, D. C. S., Correa, C. M., Merlo, E. M., Silva, D., & Braga Junior, S. S. (2019). The image of Brazil: a quantitative study from the perspective of latin American consumers. Revista Brasileira de Marketing, 18(3), 53-72.

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